Inscribed Medieval Gold Brooch Recovered in England

A metal detectorist has discovered a medieval gold brooch with a series of Latin and Hebrew inscriptions. The artefact, found in Wiltshire in the U.K., may have mixed religion and magic in an attempt to give its user protection against illness or supernatural events. 

The Latin inscriptions translate to “Hail Mary full of grace the lord/ is with thee/ blessed art thou amongst women/ and blessed is the fruit of thy womb. Amen.” The Hebrew initials for “AGLA” are also inscribed on the brooch and represent Hebrew words that mean “Thou art mighty forever, O Lord.” 

The gold brooch dates to sometime between A.D. 1150 and 1400 and may have been used in an attempt to prevent fever, according to a brief report on the brooch published online by the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) and written by Sophie Hawke, a finds liaison officer for PAS. In England and Wales, metal detectorists report their discoveries to the PAS, a government-sponsored organization that publishes reports and images of the finds on its website and sometimes in scholarly journals.

What was it used for? 

Live Science talked with a number of scholars with expertise in medieval history and magic to get their thoughts on what the brooch might have been used for. 

The Hebrew initials that represent the phrase “Thou art mighty forever, O Lord” may be important to the brooch’s purpose, some of the scholars said. This phrase “figures prominently in medieval magic,” Richard Kieckhefer, a professor of religious studies at Northwestern University, told Live Science in an email. 

He noted that the other prayers engraved on the brooch were common religious prayers at the time. “What I would want to emphasize is that this sort of combination of ‘religion’ and ‘magic’ is not unusual,” Kieckhefer said, noting that the mixture of religious and magical meanings would have given the brooch special powers in the eyes of the person who created it. 

The Hebrew initials for “AGLA” were “very commonly used in magic, from high ritual magic to protective amulets and charms,” Frank Klaassen, a history professor at the University of Saskatchewan, told Live Science in an email. “It is one of many divine names or words of power common in medieval traditions.” 

But why would someone wear such a brooch?

“Wearing Bible quotes like this was sometimes done as a way of protecting a person against misfortune,” such as fire, sudden death or supernatural forces such as demons, Catherine Rider, a professor of medieval history at the University of Exeter in the U.K., wrote in an email. “It’s hard to be sure that it’s magical — it’s perhaps more in a grey area between what we’d see as magic and religion.”

Given the brooch’s small size and mention of the Virgin Mary, the person wearing it may have been a woman. With its “small, though elegant, size, I would guess it was used on a woman’s garments of some light fabric,” Karen Jolly, a history professor at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, told Live Science in an email. “This woman was of sufficient means to have the object or have been given it. Whether she was literate or not, she would know what it said and what it meant,” Jolly said, adding that perhaps the brooch served a protective purpose related to pregnancy and childbirth. 

The brooch, with its tiny engraved inscriptions, was well crafted. “My main reaction to the brooch is that it was made by somebody who was highly skilled and that its first owner, at least, was a pious person who recorded on it both devotion to the Virgin and a charm to protect them against various threats,” Anne Lawrence-Mathers, a history professor at the University of Reading in the U.K., wrote in an email. 

The brooch is now going through the Treasure Act, as required by British law. It’s a process by which a determination is made as to what will happen to the artefact. It may end up being placed in a local museum depending on a number of factors. For instance, one possible outcome is that the metal detectorist may be given a monetary reward and the artefact may be handed over to the government, which could place it in a museum. 

Archaeologists puzzled how ‘big clue’ over Cerne Abbas Giant’s age was missed

Carved into the hillside of rural Dorset is a 55-metre tall naked man wielding a huge club in his right hand. With an 11-metre erection on full display, he is England’s largest and rudest chalk hill figure.  Situated near the village of Cerne Abbas, he was created by scouring away at grass to reveal the white chalk below and filling the trenches with more chalk from nearby quarries. Alongside the Long Man of Wilmington in East Sussex, he is one of two remaining human hill figures in England.

Both have scheduled monument status, giving them protection against unauthorised change. Yet both have been the source of intense mystery and fascination for many hundreds of years. Until recently, nobody knew who created him, or when, or why. Archaeologists and camera crews from the BBC’s Digging for Britain series headed to the southwest to carry out their own analysis. Though the earliest written record dates back to the late 17th Century, antiquarians speculated it could have been a Saxon deity, while others believed it could have been a Roman-made figure.

In July 2020, a survey of snail shells unearthed at the site suggested that the Giant is “medieval or later”, as no snails from the Roman period were found at the site. A further survey, using optically stimulated luminescence, analysed samples from the deepest layers of sediment, pointing to a construction date of 700-1100AD — the early medieval and late Anglo-Saxon period. Professor Alice Roberts, the Digging for Britain presenter, said archaeologists might have missed a “big clue” right under their noses when investigating the Giant’s age. Dr Mike Allen, an environmental archaeologist, told the documentary: “That’s one thing that archaeologists are normally very good at — saying why they’re there, what was happening and what date they are.”

He added: “Everyone seems to have been carried away with his nakedness and the member. Carved into the hillside of rural Dorset is a 55-metre tall naked man wielding a huge club in his right hand. With an 11-metre erection on full display, he is England’s largest and rudest chalk hill figure. Situated near the village of Cerne Abbas, he was created by scouring away at grass to reveal the white chalk below and filling the trenches with more chalk from nearby quarries.

Alongside the Long Man of Wilmington in East Sussex, he is one of two remaining human hill figures in England. Both have scheduled monument status, giving them protection against unauthorised change. Yet both have been the source of intense mystery and fascination for many hundreds of years.

Until recently, nobody knew who created him, or when, or why.

Archaeologists and camera crews from the BBC’s Digging for Britain series headed to the southwest to carry out their own analysis. Though the earliest written record dates back to the late 17th Century, antiquarians speculated it could have been a Saxon deity, while others believed it could have been a Roman-made figure. In July 2020, a survey of snail shells unearthed at the site suggested that the Giant is “medieval or later”, as no snails from the Roman period were found at the site. A further survey, using optically stimulated luminescence, analysed samples from the deepest layers of sediment, pointing to a construction date of 700-1100AD — the early medieval and late Anglo-Saxon period.

Professor Alice Roberts, the Digging for Britain presenter, said archaeologists might have missed a “big clue” right under their noses when investigating the Giant’s age.

Dr Mike Allen, an environmental archaeologist, told the documentary: “That’s one thing that archaeologists are normally very good at — saying why they’re there, what was happening and what date they are.”

He added: “Everyone seems to have been carried away with his nakedness and the member.

“No one had really talked about the obvious — the Abbey sitting behind us.”

Prof Roberts explained that below the Giant once lay Cerne Abbey, founded in 987AD, right in the middle of the period archaeologists now know the Giant was created. She asked Martin Papworth, a National Trust archaeologist, what connection a huge naked figure might have to a Benedictine monastery.

He explained: “Just right next to his outstretched hand is, in fact, the abbey, which was established at the same time.”

The Abbey’s wealth was created predominantly by pilgrims worshipping the local holy man, St Eadwold of Cerne. Legend has it that he lived as a hermit on a nearby hill after he planted his wooden staff on the ground there, and it miraculously grew into a tree. Prof Roberts suggested the Giant’s club could actually be a staff sprouting leaves.

Mr Papworth asked: “Is he St Eadwold? What do I think? I don’t know who he is.

“But this medieval date makes all sorts of theories possible.”

Others, however, have speculated on different theories.

Alison Sheridan, a freelance archaeological consultant, told the New Scientist: “It would almost seem to be an act of resistance by local people to create this fantastically rude pagan image on the hillside. It’s like a big two fingers to the abbey.”

National Trust researchers flew sophisticated drones over the Giant in July 2020 and carefully examined the images afterwards. Their findings hinted the Giant’s phallus might not be original, and subtle shifts in the earthworks may have been made around the 18th Century.

He told the Washington Post that “there appears to be an outline of a belt”, suggesting that once upon a time he might not have been naked at all.

Either way, more research is required to get to the bottom of this long-lasting source of fascination. The Cerne Abbas Giant, regardless of its age, has become a crucial part of local culture and folklore. In 2007, a giant Homer Simpson brandishing a doughnut was drawn next to the Giant as a publicity stunt for the opening of The Simpsons Movie.

In 2012, pupils and members of the local community recreated the Olympic torch on the Giant, marking the passing of the official torch in the build-up to the London 20212 Olympics. He has appeared in several films and TV programmes too, and his image has been reproduced on various souvenirs and local food produce labels.

He has remained a prominent tourist attraction in the region, with most tourist guides recommending a ground view from the ‘Giant’s View’ lay-by and car park just off the A352.

Treasures and lead coffin found in the ancient Roman mausoleum

An ancient mausoleum with the largest illegal silversmithing site in Roman Britain has been discovered. Archaeologists found a huge amount of litharge – a lead oxide and by-product of silver extraction – which suggests a clan was melting down metal to get at its precious material. The 15 kilos of litharge discovered at Grange Farm, an excavation site in Gillingham, Kent, is the largest amount ever uncovered at a Roman Britain site.

The 15-year research project was triggered following excavations in 2005 and 2006, prior to a house-building. The earliest evidence for occupation at Grange Farm occurs during the Late Iron Age, about 100BC before the site grew into a small Roman rural settlement in the late first century AD, and the settlement evolved until the 5th Century AD when it was abandoned.

Metal extraction took place at one end of a building, with fireplaces in the middle, and at the other end high-status domestic use. Researchers say that it was likely a large clan who were also working the land, hunting, raising animals and metalworking.

As the 3rd and 4th centuries in the Roman world operated on a gold and silver economy, the control of those metals was closely tied to imperial taxation.

This is why the investigators believe the silversmithing may have been done illicitly. Dr James Gerrard, senior lecturer in Roman Archaeology at Newcastle University, said: ‘Was that legal? Was that supervised?’

‘Quite why people were refining silver from silver-rich base metal alloys is a mystery.

‘Quite what the objects being melted down were is a mystery too.

‘They probably weren’t coins, as the bronze coinage had too little silver in it.

‘We might expect that the refining of silver here was either being done officially by the ‘Roman state’ or perhaps illicitly. It’s an unusual aspect of the site.

‘Maybe they were making silver objects like the ingots in the Canterbury Treasure.’

The investigators also discovered a monument, which would have stood at almost the height of a two-storey house, proving the occupant was very high-status. In the lead coffin, investigators found a middle-aged to elderly woman, who may have been a leader or chief of the clan.

Dr Gerrard said: ‘The mausoleum is a house for the dead.

‘It’s basically a funerary monument. It probably dates back to the late 3rd Century or early 4th Century AD, and it was a stone building structure, probably with a tile roof. It was probably quite tall – certainly visible from the Medway – perhaps about the height of a two-storey house or a little less. It’s quite unusual in that it had a tessellated pavement of plain mosaic – a plain red colour – which is really unusual for Roman Britain.

‘This middle-aged to the elderly lady was buried there in a lead-lined coffin. She was probably local from the isotope analysis we did on the teeth. The silver suggests wealth. The mausoleum is wealth. It takes resources to build the structure like the mausoleum and it takes resources to put someone in a lead coffin. She had quite a hard life though. She had osteoarthritis but she lived to a good age and was buried with reverence. I think she was quite a high status. She was no peasant and she was someone with clout locally. Further evidence of wealth comes from gold jewellery found in the rubble of the mausoleum – including a necklace or bracelet made of gold filigree double-loop links threaded with polyhedral faceted beads of variscite.

Evidence of wear and modification suggests it may have been a necklace turned into a bracelet for a child, and it’s not known if it would have come from the mausoleum itself or sarcophagi possibly located next to it. Unusually, the mausoleum stayed intact until the 11th or 12th Century with the Anglo-Saxons left the ancient Roman structure alone. But it was not unoccupied, as the researchers found the mausoleum had been taken over by owls.

Dr Gerrard said: ‘We think during the 5th Century the grave is disturbed.

‘We don’t know why that was – and then the building stayed up until the Norman Conquest.’

‘We’ve got tawny owl pellets. The building becomes ruinous and then you’ve got owls living here.

‘It’s the end of the Roman Empire, the mausoleum is abandoned and the owls take up residence – we can’t be too precise about when that was but it would have been somewhere between the 5th and 10th Century. The researcher said he believes the monument was left alone by the Anglo-Saxons who may have used it as a navigational structure for people coming down the River Medway.

Dr Gerrard said: ‘If the building is visible from the Medway it might be a navigational structure for people coming down the river. It’s the 5th Century and water was more important as a means of travel.’

At the site, the team uncovered in all 453 Roman coins, 20,000 fragments of pottery weighing a quarter of a ton, and 8,000 animal bones. The mausoleum was moved after Domesday in 1086 when the land – recorded as having pasture, a tidal mill and six unfree peasants – was given to Bishop Odo of Bayeaux, half-brother of William the Conqueror.

Dr Gerrard said: ‘The site then becomes the medieval manor.

‘Probably what happened was they reused the stone from the building to build a chapel. At 1122, the manor was called Grenic, then Grenech in 1198, Grenge in the 14th Century, and more recently it became known simply as Grange Farm.

Dr Gerrard added: ‘It’s the end of a long process,’ he said. ‘I started my involvement in 2005 as a site assistant and digger on a short-term contract. I was in my late 20s. It’s 15 years later and I’m in my early 40s and I’m a senior lecturer at Newcastle University. It’s been with me a long time – it’s part of my career. For all the other people in the report, it’s been a huge part of our lives..’

World War II POW Camp Excavated in England

The German Second World War soldiers were imprisoned close to the Park Hall military camp, near Oswestry. Excavations have been taking place at Mile End where work is continuing on the multi-million pound revamp of the A5/A483 junction to the south of the town.

Experts from Wessex Archaeology, who carried out the excavations, said the evidence they have found suggests that the camp was in use between 1940 and 1948 and believe it will give them an insight into what life was like as a prisoner of war in Shropshire.

Among the finds were a loaded German pistol and a spent .303 cartridge as well as signs of comfort including beer bottles from the now-defunct Border Breweries in Wrexham.

John Winfer, project manager at Wessex Archaeology, said: “What we have revealed is surprising evidence of some (relatively speaking) comfortable conditions for the inmates.

“We know from our documentary research that the Red Cross, which visited many POW camps across Europe during the Second World War, came to assess conditions at the Mile End camp.

“The visit report highlights the range of facilities and activities on offer to the prisoners, which is supported by the archaeological evidence we uncovered.”

He said the prisoners benefited from sports pitches, musical performances, electricity to power lights and heating, enough toilets available for everyone at the camp, and several hot and cold showers and washbasins.

Many of the prisoners would have been employed in carpentry workshops, with younger inmates given time off to study at the camp’s school, he said,

“Those overseeing the camp enjoyed more spacious accommodation, and our work uncovered military issue ceramic tableware accompanied by beer glasses. This all paints a civilised and rather unexpected picture of a POW camp,” Mr Winfer said.

Artefacts giving more personal insights to those living at the camp include a lead alloy toy camel and toiletries including toothbrushes.

But it is an aluminium metal identification tag from a German soldier that has excited archaeologists the most.

Mr Winfer said: “This is an intriguing find with so much potential. In the event of death during the war, the tag would have been snapped, with one half-buried with the body for later identification and the other given to unit administrators for recording.

“In this case, it tells us that the German POW in question belonged to the 3rd Company, Landesschützen Battalion XI/I marking the capture of this prisoner early in the war, September 1939 to 1940.

“We know his serial number too, so we’ll be doing further research to reveal the full story.”

British Museum unveils treasures at the centre of recent World of Stonehenge exhibition

The world’s oldest surviving map of the sky and a ‘talismanic’ chalk drum have gone on display as part of a major new exhibition. The 3,600-year-old Nebra Sky Disc and the 5,000-year-old Burton Agnes chalk drum are just two of 430 objects and artefacts that are visible to the public from Thursday at the British Museum in London. They are part of the World of Stonehenge exhibition, which runs until July and tells the story of the famous Neolithic stone circle in Wiltshire.

Stunning photos taken today show the 12-inch sky disc in all its glory. It is inlaid with gold symbols that are believed to represent the moon, sun, solstices and stars, and was unearthed by looters in Germany in 1999.

The chalk drum, which bears intricate circular etchings, was found alongside the ancient burial of three children near the village of Burton Agnes in East Yorkshire. Other artefacts on display include two gold hats and an ancient wooden monument called ‘Seahenge’ which dates back 4,000 years. 

According to the British Museum, nearly two-thirds of the objects going on display in the exhibition will be loans, with artefacts coming from 35 lenders across the UK, the Republic of Ireland, France, Italy, Germany, Denmark and Switzerland. The majority of the items have never been seen in the UK before. The Nebra Sky Disc was found near the town of Nebra in Saxony-Anhalt, in the east of Germany, by looters Mario Renner and Henry Westphal.

The pair were treasure hunting without a license and ended up destroying parts of the archaeological site, as well as damaging the disc with their spade. They sold the disc alongside bronze swords, hatchets, a chisel and bracelet fragments that they found with it to a dealer in Cologne for 31,000 Deutsche Mark (around £10,000).

The pair were arrested in the bar of the Hilton Hotel in Basel, Switzerland, after trying to sell the sky disc to the German state archaeologist for 700,000 DM (£217,391). Experts believe the sky disc was used as a calculator to help its Bronze Age owners predict the best times for sowing and harvesting in the spring and autumn. This interpretation is supported by the presence of a cluster of seven stars, the Pleiades, which appear next to a full or new moon at these times.

The Burton Agnes drum is decorated with symbols that are believed to represent the sun, is only the fourth surviving example of its kind and is the most intricately decorated.

It was found buried above the head of the eldest child and is believed to have been placed in the grave during the first construction phase of Stonehenge – when the monument’s bluestones were being moved from west Wales to Salisbury Plain. It contains symbols similar to those found on pottery at the dwelling site of the builders who created Stonehenge, at Bulford, and could cast light on how communities lived at the time.

The British Museum already has three barrel-shaped cylinders made of solid chalk, dubbed the Folkton drums after their discovery in North Yorkshire in 1889. Dr Neil Wilkin, the curator of The World of Stonehenge at the British Museum, said: ‘This is a truly remarkable discovery, and is the most important piece of prehistoric art to be found in Britain in the last 100 years.

‘This drum is likely to have represented the circle of life, renewal and regeneration.

‘Children are the future, and represent the next generation, so burying them with a chalk drum as a talisman may well have been seen as a way to protect the future of the community.’

Alice Beasley, who first uncovered the drum as project archaeologist at Allen Archaeology, said: ‘Discovering the chalk drum was a thrilling and humbling experience. Seeing the love and effort put into burying the individuals over 5000 years ago was truly moving

‘The children are highly unlikely to have been child sacrifices, as have been seen in the remains of some pagan societies.

Seahenge was nicknamed the Stonehenge of the Sea after it re-emerged on a Norfolk beach in 1998. It consists of a large upturned tree stump surrounded by 54 wooden posts. The oak posts, some up to nine ft tall, form a 21ft-diameter circle around the upturned oak, creating a giant tree-like spectacle.

A narrow entranceway was built aligning to the rising midsummer sun and it is speculated the monument was used for ritual purposes. Dr Jennifer Wexler, project curator of the World Of Stonehenge at the British Museum, said: ‘If Stonehenge is one of the world’s most remarkable surviving ancient stone circles, then Seahenge is the equivalent in timber.

‘But as it was only rediscovered in 1998, it is still relatively unknown.

‘We know about some aspects of the monument, including that it was constructed in the spring and summer of 2049 BC, from mighty oaks.

‘But there’s much that still eludes us, including exactly what it was used for.

‘Perhaps the central upturned trunk was used in funerary rituals to support a dead body. Perhaps entering the circular shrine brought worshippers closer to the otherworld.

‘By displaying Seahenge in this exhibition we hope to bring it to a wider audience, and it provides an unparalleled opportunity to time-travel back to the moment when circles of stone and timber were at the heart of people’s beliefs.’

The headgear going on display includes the Schifferstadt gold hat from Germany and the Avanton gold cone from France.

It is the first time that either has been seen in Britain. They are decorated with elaborate solar motifs that reflect the religious importance of the sun during this era. The Schifferstadt hat, which was found in the German town of the same name in 1835, dates back to between 1400 and 1300 BC, whilst the Avanton cone – discovered near Avanton, Poitiers in 1844 – dates to between 1000 and 900 BC. Only two other examples of these hats are known to have survived. They served as headgear during ceremonies or rituals, and experts theorised that the original wearers may have believed that they gave them divine or otherworldly status.

Hartwig Fischer, Director of the British Museum, said: ‘To understand the purpose of the great stone monument constructed on Salisbury Plain, it is essential to consider its contemporary world and the culture of its builders. 

‘We are delighted to be able to do this in this unprecedented exhibition. 

‘Over 430 exceptional objects are being brought together, objects which are the last and only testament of sophisticated and ingenious people, and we are grateful to all of the lenders who have made it possible.’ 

Chalk drum from 5,000 years ago is ‘most important art find’ in a century

A 5,000-year-old chalk sculpture discovered in east Yorkshire, due to be displayed at the British Museum, has been described as the most important piece of prehistoric art to be found in Britain in the last century.

The object, which archaeologists have named the “Burton Agnes drum”, is a chalk sculpture that had been decorated with motifs similar to the artistic style at the same time as Stonehenge was built. The drum was discovered alongside the burial of three children.

The drum is hailed to be such an important discovery due to its similarity to a group of objects already in the British Museum’s collection.

The Folkton drums, three barrel-shaped cylinders made of chalk, were found in North Yorkshire buried alongside the remains of a child, and have been part of the British Museum’s collection since 1889. They are, according to the British Museum, some of the “most famous and enigmatic ancient objects ever unearthed in Britain”.

Relatively little is known about the Folkton drums and their context but this new drum, which was found about 15 miles away, sheds new light on them.

The exact age of the Folkton drums was never known, with a consensus guess that they were made around 2500 – 2000BC.

However, due to new technology and the finding of the new drum, the Folkton drums can be identified as being nearly 500 years older than previously thought.

This new discovery, only the fourth example of its kind known to have survived, is nearly identical to the Folkton drums and can also be described as a chalk drum.

Despite the use of the term ‘drum’, they are not thought to have had a musical function. Instead, they are works of sculptural art and have been interpreted to be intended as talismans to protect the deceased children they accompanied.

The Burton Agnes drum is due to be displayed to the public for the first time on Thursday, alongside all three Folkton drums, as part of the World of Stonehenge exhibition at the British Museum.

Neil Wilkin, the curator of The World of Stonehenge at the British Museum, said the discovery was “truly remarkable”.

“The Folkton drums have long remained a mystery to experts for well over a century, but this new example finally begins to give us some answers. To my mind, the Burton Agnes drum is even more intricately carved and reflects connections between communities in Yorkshire, Stonehenge, Orkney and Ireland,” he said.

“The discovery of the Burton Agnes grave is highly moving. The emotions the new drum expresses are powerful and timeless, they transcend the time of Stonehenge and reflect a moment of tragedy and despair that remains undimmed after 5,000 years,” he added.

“We are honoured that the British Museum will be the first place the public will be able to see this important object and that they will see it alongside 430 other ancient items telling the spectacular story of Stonehenge and the vibrant world in which it was built.”

Mark Allen, the director of Allen Archaeology, said that it has been a “real privilege” to have been involved in its discovery, and took the opportunity to thank the “landowners for their enthusiasm and interest in the project from the outset.”

“When we heard about the find from the team on-site and saw the photos of the drum that were messaged over to us, it was clear we were looking at something extraordinary,” he said. “Although the photos did not do it justice, and we were all stunned to see it up close when it came off-site.”

Alice Beasley, who first uncovered the drum as an archaeologist for Allen Archeology, said discovering it was a “thrilling and humbling” experience. “Seeing the love and effort put into burying the individuals over 5,000 years ago was truly moving,” she said.

The World of Stonehenge exhibition at the British Museum, on display until mid-July, is the UK’s first major exhibition on Stonehenge. Nearly two-thirds of the objects on display will be loaned from 35 lenders across several different countries, including Germany, Denmark and Italy.

Archaeologists Find 40 Beheaded Roman Skeletons With Skulls Between Their Legs

Archaeologists in England have unearthed 40 beheaded skeletons at an ancient Roman burial site while digging along the high-speed rail line near Fleet Marston, just 55 miles northwest of London.

Researchers found the remains while excavating part of a newly discovered 2,000-year-old town, which also included coins, lead weights, brooches, bells and enclosures that once formed part of a road, according to Katy Prickett of BBC News.

The team uncovered the artefacts while work was progressing on the construction of HS2, a major modern railway system that will connect much of the country when completed in 2040, per the Guardian.

“The excavation is significant in both enabling a clear characterization of this Roman town but also a study of many of its inhabitants,” Robert Brown of COPA JV, a consortium of archaeological contractors working with HS2, says in a statement.

For more than a year, Cotswold Archaeology, Oxford Archaeology and Pre-Construct Archaeology (COPA) have worked to excavate the town and burial site. The cemetery, from which 425 skeletons were exhumed, is the largest of its kind in Buckinghamshire, per the Guardian.

About 10 per cent of the skeletons found were decapitated, with the skulls placed between their legs or near their feet, possibly due to their status as criminals or outcasts, say the researchers in the statement. However, they add that such burials were also a “normal, albeit marginal, burial rite” conducted in the late Roman period, dating to between 250-450 C.E.

“Decapitation was one of the four main methods of execution sanctioned by Roman law” and is believed to have been a popular choice among lawmakers across Roman Britain,” Rob Wiseman, an archaeologist at the University of Cambridge who was not involved in the discovery, told Live Science in an email. “Although what the purpose [of that ritual] remained uncertain.”

Often in these cases, scientists are unable to determine if the decapitated bodies had their heads removed before or after death, Wiseman adds, but sometimes skeletons found at similar burials show evidence of being struck from behind by a sharp blade while the person was kneeling.

Aside from the severed heads, the graves don’t appear different from other Roman gravesites. Even under Roman law, the bodies of executed criminals were typically handed over to kin, who traditionally opted for normal burials, Wiseman tells Live Science. One explanation for the placement of the severed heads at Fleet Marston burial is that the relatives of the individuals may have believed that the soul would only transition into the afterlife if the head was placed next to the rest of the body, Wiseman says. Or it could be they feared the corpse would put itself back together and return from death.

The archaeologists state that the number of burials and the development of the settlement suggests the town experienced a “population influx” around the mid-to-late Roman period, due to what may have been an increase in agricultural production. The burial site was divided into two different areas, indicating that the cemetery may have been organized by tribe, family or ethnic grouping, per the statement.

The researchers plan to study the exhumed skeletons over the next few years in hopes of learning more about the lifestyles of ancient Romans, reports Alia Shoaib for Business Insider.

“All human remains uncovered will be treated with dignity, care and respect and our discoveries will be shared with the community,” says Helen Wass, head of heritage at HS2, in the statement. “HS2’s archaeology program seeks to engage with all communities both locally and nationally to share the information and knowledge gained as well as leaving a lasting archival and skills legacy.”

Experts also found 1,200 coins along with several lead weights indicating the town served as a centre for trade, reports BBC News. Additionally, the site contained domestic artefacts, such as pottery, spoons, pins and brooches, as well as gaming dice and bells, suggesting gambling and religious activity occurred at the settlement.

In addition to the artefacts, a team of 50 COPA archaeologists discovered a series of enclosures along Akeman Street, an ancient Roman road linking the town of Verulamium—now St. Albans—with the settlement of Corinium Dobunnorum—now Cirencester—per the HS2 statement. These structures were likely a mix of domestic dwellings and sites of commercial and industrial activity.

Parts of the road were widened, say the scientists, suggesting the area may have been used as a marketplace. The extra room would have provided space for carts and stalls, according to the statement.

Archaeologists say the town was likely an important staging post for travellers and soldiers passing on their way to and from the Roman garrison at what is now Alchester, per BBC News.

The scientists also found evidence of Iron Age enclosures, suggesting the area was used for farming before the town was established. Early in the Roman period, the region was the site of gravel quarrying, possibly used for the construction of Akeman Street, per the statement. The team also discovered a stone-built corn dryer or malting oven, which may have been used for brewing, per the statement.

Fleet Marston is one of more than 100 archaeological sites investigated by HS2 since work began in 2018 on the first phase of track between London and Birmingham, reports the Guardian.

“The HS2 archaeology program has enabled us to learn more about our rich history in Britain,” Wass tells the Guardian. “The large Roman cemetery at Fleet Marston will enable us to gain a detailed insight into the residents of Fleet Marston and the wider Roman Britain landscape.

13th-Century Tiled Floor Unearthed at Friary Site in England

Archaeologists at a city dig site have uncovered a medieval tiled floor dating back to around the 13th Century. The discovery was made in Gloucestershire at the location of the new £107m development, The Forum.

The floor, made of glazed white and green tiles, belonged to the cloister of the city’s medieval Whitefriars Carmelite Friary and was unearthed by the Cotswold Archaeology team.

Archaeologist Anthony Beechey described the find as “extra special”.

Mr Beechey explained that the “beautiful tiled floor is in remarkably good condition”.

“Most of our Whitefriars findings are fragments of the original structure while this floor is largely intact, making the discovery extra special” and the excavation process “endlessly fascinating”, he added.

‘Best-preserved finding’

Andrew Armstrong, the city archaeologist at Gloucester City Council, said: “It is thrilling to see yet more evidence of Whitefriars emerge and this is the best-preserved finding to date.”

He added: “The friary played an active role in the city for 300 years and yet, until these excavations started, very little was known about it.”

Whitefriars’ exact location in Gloucester was the subject of speculation for decades until the archaeological investigations began, following the demolition of the former multi-storey carpark on Bruton Way in early 2020.

The Forum is being developed into a new social and digital quarter by the council and Reef Group.

Councillor Richard Cook said the findings are shining “a light on Gloucester’s historic heritage”.

In September 2021, a 1,800-year-old figurine was uncovered by Cotswold Archaeology close to the area of the site currently being excavated.