Category Archives: WORLD

WORLD

Was There Another Civilization On Earth Before Humans?

Was There Another Civilization On Earth Before Humans?

It only took five minutes for Gavin Schmidt to out-speculate me. Schmidt is the director of NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies (a.k.a. GISS) a world-class climate-science facility. One day last year, I came to GISS with a far-out proposal. In my work as an astrophysicist, I’d begun researching global warming from an “astrobiological perspective.”

That meant asking whether any industrial civilization that rises on any planet will, through its own activity, trigger its own version of a climate shift. I was visiting GISS that day hoping to gain some climate science insights and, perhaps, collaborators. That’s how I ended up in Gavin’s office.

Just as I was revving up my pitch, Gavin stopped me in my tracks.

Was There Another Civilization On Earth Before Humans?

“Wait a second,” he said. “How do you know we’re the only time there’s been a civilization on our own planet?”

It took me a few seconds to pick my jaw off the floor. I had certainly come into Gavin’s office prepared for eye rolls at the mention of “exo-civilizations.”

But the civilizations he was asking about would have existed many millions of years ago. Sitting there, seeing Earth’s vast evolutionary past telescope before my mind’s eye, I felt a kind of temporal vertigo. “Yeah,” I stammered, “Could we tell if there’d been an industrial civilization that deep in time?”

We never got back to aliens. Instead, that first conversation launched a new study we’ve recently published in the International Journal of Astrobiology. Though neither of us could see it at that moment, Gavin’s penetrating question opened a window not just onto Earth’s past, but also onto our own future. We’re used to imagining extinct civilizations in terms of the sunken statues and subterranean ruins. These kinds of artefacts of previous societies are fine if you’re only interested in the timescales of a few thousands of years. But once you roll the clock back to tens of millions or hundreds of millions of years, things get more complicated. When it comes to direct evidence of an industrial civilization — things like cities, factories, and roads — the geologic record doesn’t go back past what’s called the Quaternary period 2.6 million years ago. For example, the oldest large-scale stretch of ancient surface lies in the Negev Desert. It’s “just” 1.8 million years old — older surfaces are mostly visible in cross-section via something like a cliff face or rock cuts. Go back much farther than the Quaternary and everything has been turned over and crushed to dust.

And, if we’re going back this far, we’re not talking about human civilizations anymore. Homo sapiens didn’t make their appearance on the planet until just 300,000 years or so ago. That means the question shifts to other species, which is why Gavin called the idea the Silurian hypothesis, after an old Dr. Who episode with intelligent reptiles.

So, could researchers find clear evidence that an ancient species built a relatively short-lived industrial civilization long before our own? Perhaps, for example, some early mammals rose briefly to civilization building during the Paleocene epoch about 60 million years ago. There are fossils, of course. But the fraction of life that gets fossilized is always minuscule and varies a lot depending on time and habitat. It would be easy, therefore, to miss an industrial civilization that only lasted 100,000 years — which would be 500 times longer than our industrial civilization has made it so far. Given that all direct evidence would be long gone after many millions of years, what kinds of evidence might then still exist? The best way to answer this question is to figure out what evidence we’d leave behind if human civilization collapsed at its current stage of development. Now that our industrial civilization has truly gone global, humanity’s collective activity is laying down a variety of traces that will be detectable by scientists 100 million years in the future. The extensive use of fertilizer, for example, keeps 7 billion people fed, but it also means we’re redirecting the planet’s flows of nitrogen into food production.

Future researchers should see this in characteristics of nitrogen showing up in sediments from our era. Likewise our relentless hunger for the rare-Earth elements used in electronic gizmos. Far more of these atoms are now wandering around the planet’s surface because of us than would otherwise be the case. They might also show up in future sediments, too. Even our creation, and use, of synthetic steroids, has now become so pervasive that it too may be detectable in geologic strata 10 million years from now. And then there’s all that plastic. Studies have shown increasing amounts of plastic “marine litter” are being deposited on the seafloor everywhere from coastal areas to deep basins and even in the Arctic.

Wind, sun, and waves grind down large-scale plastic artefacts, leaving the seas full of microscopic plastic particles that will eventually rain down on the ocean floor, creating a layer that could persist for geological timescales. The big question is how long any of these traces of our civilization will last. In our study, we found each had the possibility of making it into future sediments. Ironically, however, the most promising marker of humanity’s presence as an advanced civilization is a by-product of one activity that may threaten it most. When we burn fossil fuels, we’re releasing carbon back into the atmosphere that was once part of living tissues. This ancient carbon is depleted in one of that element’s three naturally occurring varieties or isotopes. The more fossil fuels we burn, the more the balance of these carbon isotopes shifts. Atmospheric scientists call this shift the Suess effect, and the change in isotopic ratios of carbon due to fossil-fuel use is easy to see over the last century. Increases in temperature also leave isotopic signals. These shifts should be apparent to any future scientist who chemically analyzes exposed layers of rock from our era. Along with these spikes, this Anthropocene layer might also hold brief peaks in nitrogen, plastic nanoparticles, and even synthetic steroids. So if these are traces our civilization is bound to leave to the future, might the same “signals” exist right now in rocks just waiting to tell us of civilizations long gone?

Fifty-six million years ago, Earth passed through the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). During the PETM, the planet’s average temperature climbed as high as 15 degrees Fahrenheit above what we experience today. It was a world almost without ice, as typical summer temperatures at the poles reached close to a balmy 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Looking at the isotopic record from the PETM, scientists see both carbon and oxygen isotope ratios spiking in exactly the way we expect to see in the Anthropocene record. There are also other events like the PETM in the Earth’s history that show traces like our hypothetical Anthropocene signal. These include an event a few million years after the PETM dubbed the Eocene Layers of Mysterious Origin, and massive events in the Cretaceous that left the ocean without oxygen for many millennia (or even longer).

Are these events indications of previous nonhuman industrial civilizations? Almost certainly not. While there is evidence that the PETM may have been driven by a massive release of buried fossil carbon into the air, it’s the timescale of these changes that matter. The PETM’s isotope spikes rise and fall over a few hundred thousand years. But what makes the Anthropocene so remarkable in terms of Earth’s history is the speed at which we’re dumping fossil carbon into the atmosphere. There have been geological periods where Earth’s CO2 has been as high or higher than today, but never before in the planet’s multibillion-year history has so much buried carbon been dumped back into the atmosphere so quickly. So the isotopic spikes we do see in the geologic record may not be spiky enough to fit the Silurian hypothesis’s bill.

But there is a conundrum here. If an earlier species’ industrial activity is short-lived, we might not be able to easily see it. The PETM’s spikes mostly show us the Earth’s timescales for responding to whatever caused it, not necessarily the timescale of the cause. So it might take both dedicated and novel detection methods to find evidence of a truly short-lived event in ancient sediments. In other words, if you’re not explicitly looking for it, you might not see it. That recognition was, perhaps, the most concrete conclusion of our study.

It’s not often that you write a paper proposing a hypothesis that you don’t support. Gavin and I don’t believe the Earth once hosted a 50-million-year-old Paleocene civilization.

But by asking if we could “see” truly ancient industrial civilizations, we were forced to ask about the generic kinds of impacts any civilization might have on a planet. That’s exactly what the astrobiological perspective on climate change is all about.

Civilization building means harvesting energy from the planet to do work (i.e., the work of civilization building). Once the civilization reaches truly planetary scales, there has to be some feedback on the coupled planetary systems that gave it birth (air, water, rock).

This will be particularly true for young civilizations like ours still climbing up the ladder of technological capacity. There is, in other words, no free lunch. While some energy sources will have a lower impact — say solar vs. fossil fuels — you can’t power a global civilization without some degree of impact on the planet.

Once you realize, through climate change, the need to find lower-impact energy sources, the less impact you will leave. So the more sustainable your civilization becomes, the smaller the signal you’ll leave for future generations.

In addition, our work also opened up the speculative possibility that some planets might have fossil-fuel-driven cycles of civilization building and collapse. If a civilization uses fossil fuels, the climate change they trigger can lead to a large decrease in ocean oxygen levels.

These low oxygen levels (called ocean anoxia) help trigger the conditions needed for making fossil fuels like oil and coal in the first place. In this way, a civilization and its demise might sow the seed for new civilizations in the future. By asking about civilizations lost in deep time, we’re also asking about the possibility of universal rules guiding the evolution of all biospheres in all their creative potential, including the emergence of civilizations. Even without pickup-driving Paleocenians, we’re only now learning to see how rich that potential might be.

ENGLAND, EUROPE, WORLD

Rare 18th-Century Warship Rudder Found in the Solent

Rare 18th-Century Warship Rudder Found in the Solent

Rare 18th-Century Warship Rudder Found in the Solent
The rudder was discovered intact, 60m (200ft) from the main structure of the wreck

The lost rudder of a warship that sank in the Solent in 1758 has been discovered on the seabed, 60m (200ft) away from the main shipwreck. HMS Invincible – built by the French in 1744 and captured by the British in 1747 – is regarded as one of the most significant warships of its time.

The 11m-long intact rudder was spotted during a routine inspection of the site near Portsmouth.

Marine archaeologist Dan Pascoe said it was “unique and significant”.

“We weren’t particularly looking for it. A feature had shown up in geophysical surveys, 60m off the stern,” he said.

“It looks like it’s in pretty good condition and is complete from top to bottom.”

The 11m-long rudder has been scanned on the seabed

The 74-gun ship was lost when the rudder jammed and it ran aground on a sandbank between Langstone Harbour and the Isle of Wight, capsizing three days later. No lives were lost.

Mr Pascoe said: “The ship was highly manoeuvrable and the rudder was critical to its design.

“It’s the last piece of the jigsaw that tells the story of Invincible. It’s a fantastic, wonderful find and extremely rare – it only survived because it was buried.”

The rudder is due to be protected with sandbags to prevent it from being quickly eroded by the elements underwater, but bringing it to the surface and conserving it could cost up to £80,000, Mr Pascoe estimated.

“It’s a unique find – there are no other examples from warships of this era. Its future depends on whether it is financially viable to raise and find somewhere to display it,” he added.

HMS Invincible’s class of ships became the “backbone of the Royal Navy”, the National Museum of the Royal Navy said

A major excavation project, carried out by Poole’s Maritime Archaeology Sea Trust (MAST) and Bournemouth University experts, began on the wreck site in 2017.

Among the artefacts discovered were a gunpowder barrel, swivel guns, a bottle of corked rum and woodworking tools.

Many have since gone on display at the National Museum of the Royal Navy in Portsmouth.

EUROPE, FRANCE, WORLD

The 6500-Year-Old Grave of the Unfortunate Ladies of Téviec

The 6500-Year-Old Grave of the Unfortunate Ladies of Téviec

Téviec would be a rather anonymous island located somewhere in Brittany, France, if it wasn’t for its great archaeological value thanks to the many finds – mainly from the Mesolithic Period – that have been excavated there. These finds include the skeletons of two women, dated between 6740 and 5680 BC, who may have been violently murdered.

Archaeologists Put Téviec on the Mesolithic Map

Téviec Island, Brittany, France. ( BCD)

Téviec is one of the very few known Mesolithic sites in Brittany, along with Pointe de la Torche, Hoëdic and Beg er Vil on the Quibe.

It has been the subject of a biotope protection scheme for the past 35 years. Therefore, landing on the island has become a troublesome task for contemporary archaeologists, since it is generally prohibited from 15 April to 31 August.

That wasn’t always the case, though. From 1928 to 1934, archaeologists Marthe and Saint-Just Péquart discovered and excavated a culturally and archaeologically rich Mesolithic site on the island, dating to between 5700 and 4500 BC.

According to most historians, this is considered the end of the Mesolithic period in western France and it overlaps with the beginning of the Neolithic period.

Marthe and Saint-Just Péquart – after first discovering the tomb. 1928

The main finds at the site were substantial middens formed of oyster and clam shells and ten multiple graves containing 23 skeletons, including adults and children.

Among the shells were the remains of animals as well, such as dogs, crabs, fish, lobsters, seabirds, deer, and boar among others. Due to the acidity of the soil in the location, the bones have been remarkably preserved, even though many of the skeletons showed clear signs of brutality and violence, including one with an arrowhead embedded in its spine.

A midden, composed of shells, animal bones etc. provides insights into life on the island.

The Unfortunate Ladies of Téviec

The most fascinating and mysterious of all discoveries, however, is undoubtedly the grave that includes the skeletons of two women aged 25–35, dubbed the “Ladies of Téviec.” Their bodies were buried delicately in a pit that was partly dug into the ground and coated over with debris from the midden.

The corpses had been protected all these centuries by a roof made of antlers and supplied with pieces of flint, boar bones, and jewellery made of sea shells such as necklaces, bracelets, and ringlets for their legs. The grave collection was unearthed from the site as a whole and is now on display at the Muséum de Toulouse, where its restoration in 2010 earned several awards.

The Ladies of Téviec, both feature traumatic injuries to the skull.

The thing that shocked archaeologists the most though, was the blatant violence and brutality the two women sustained before they died. Scientists examining the skeletons concluded that one of them had suffered five blows to the head, two of which were possibly fatal, and had also received at least one arrow shot between the eyes.

The other body also had traces of injuries, but not as violent as the body of her “friend.” In recent years, however, this diagnosis is debated by some archaeologists, who claim that the immense weight of the soil above the grave may have been the cause of damage to the skeletons.

An obvious question that probably occurs upon reading this is: How could the weight and composition of any soil – no matter how heavy it might be –ever justify an arrow shot between the eyes? It doesn’t make any sense, does it?

A Very Cold Case: Attempts to Solve the Téviec Mystery Almost 6,500 Years Later

In 2012, replicas of the two skeletons were laid for the first time on a mortuary slab of Toulouse Natural History Museum, during an exhibition titled Prehistory: The Investigation, which became a big hit in France.

“When you create an exhibition, you need to create an atmosphere and a lot of TV shows are about CSI and forensics and they always start with a forensics table – and here it is,” said Dr. Francis Duranthon, the director of the Toulouse Natural History Museum, pointing to the mortuary slab.

In the city of Toulouse alone, more than a hundred thousand people visited the exhibition, while in Paris two hundred thousand people watched closely the attempt of the scientists to solve this prehistoric mystery.

Isotope analysis of the two women’s teeth showed a diet of seafood and meat. That caused scientists to speculate that the two females possibly came from a small community that farmed, harvested the sea, and hunted. The exhibition also revealed that this was probably a community where women fulfilled a more domestic role. “It is unusual to find women killed this way during this period,” said Duranthon and added, “What we know is that at least two people were involved in these killings.”

Exhibit A? Skull from the Téviec burial. This female died when she was 25 to 35 years old from a violent death with numerous skull fractures and bone lesions associated with the impact of an arrow.

According to several academics, raids, in order to steal food, were pretty common back then and they suggest that the two unlucky women could have been victims of a bloody raid. However, some historians claim that what possibly killed the women was a long series of unfortunate meteorological phenomena. Droughts back then would usually decimate a farming community, while an extreme hailstorm destroyed crops, and people would see these as signs that the gods needed to be appeased. Thus, the two women might have been sacrificed as victims of ritual murder, slain by people they knew – or even family members.

So, what really happened to the “Ladies of Téviec”? As it’s the case with many historical mysteries throughout the centuries…We will probably never know!

WORLD

Researchers Track Changes in Size of Europe’s Dogs

Researchers Track Changes in Size of Europe’s Dogs

European dogs doubled in size from 8000 to 2000 years ago, a new study suggests. The beefing up may have helped our canine pals protect sheep from bears and even their direct ancestor—the gray wolf.

Ancient guard dogs may have looked something like the great Pyrenees, which are still used to protect flocks today

It’s “important” research, says Robert Losey, an archaeologist at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, who specializes in ancient human-animal relationships but was not involved with the work. “It’s one of the few long-term studies based in Europe looking at trends in dog size over time.”

Dogs were domesticated between 15,000 and 30,000 years ago. Little is known about the size and roles of the earliest pups, though they were likely smaller than the gray wolves they came from.

Scientists have speculated that ancient dogs may have helped humans hunt and pull sleds.

To see how the size—and jobs—of dogs changed over time, Martin Welker, a zooarchaeology curator at the Arizona State Museum, and his colleagues examined the remains of 14 dogs uncovered from ancient human settlements in Croatia.

They also incorporated data from another 45 ancient dogs, some from Croatia and some from neighbouring countries. The remains dated from about 8000 years ago in the Neolithic (or later Stone Age) to the Roman period, about 2000 years ago.

Dogs had lived in the region before, but the first Neolithic farmers, who arrived in the area from Anatolia and the Middle East, brought a new breed with them.

These new animals averaged about 15 kilograms—roughly the size of a border collie, the scientists found—though this was long before most of today’s breeds evolved.

By the Bronze Age, which started roughly 6000 years ago in this region, the average mass increased to about 17 kilograms. And by Roman times, the weight of the average dog had jumped to 24 kilograms, the team concluded last month in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports.

A domestic dog jaw bone was discovered in a Neolithic village dating about 7,000 years ago.

Historical documents—including ancient Roman records giving advice to farmers on herding and guard dogs—suggest even bigger dogs at the time, reaching at least 32 kilograms, nearly the weight of today’s great Pyrenees dogs.

Great Pyrenees are still used to guard European livestock—and, indeed, the researchers saw an evolution in responsibilities as ancient dogs got bigger.

Isotope analysis of the teeth of Neolithic sheep, which can reveal ancient diets, suggests that, as time went on, they grazed higher in the mountains. “In doing so, you expose them to larger risk from predators like wolves and bears,” Welker says, making guard dogs important.

Not every dog was a hulking protector: The Romans may have been the first people to breed lapdogs, according to depictions on murals and other evidence.

Researchers have focused on hunting dogs but know less about what happened when people began farming, which makes this study exciting, says Angela Perri, an expert on ancient dogs with PaleoWest, a private archaeology firm. Perri wasn’t involved with the study.

Guard dogs are key to that story, and they had “staying power,” she says. “Hunting dogs and sledding dogs now are pretty rare, but people are still using herding and livestock guarding dogs everywhere.”

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

Unusually Arranged Skeletons And Artifacts Found Inside A 1,500-Year-Old Tomb In Berenice Troglodytica, Egypt

Unusually Arranged Skeletons And Artifacts Found Inside A 1,500-Year-Old Tomb In Berenice Troglodytica, Egypt

Archaeologists excavating in the city of Berenice Troglodytica, an ancient seaport of Egypt on the western shore of the Red Sea, have found a 1,500-year monumental tomb that contains unusually arranged skeletons. The grave is also filled with many beautiful artefacts.

Unusually Arranged Skeletons And Artifacts Found Inside A 1,500-Year-Old Tomb In Berenice Troglodytica, Egypt
View of the examined tomb.

After opening the tomb, researchers report they saw skeletons that looked as if the dead were buried in a huddled position – the bones of the lower limbs resting on the chest.

“This is not a natural position. In order to achieve it, the deceased had to be bound with ropes or tied with cloth,” research leader Dr. Mariusz Gwiazda from the Center of Mediterranean Archeology of the University of Warsaw told Science in Poland.

The rope was tied around the neck and legs, which caused the body to assume a crouched position. This type of funerary custom was described in the 2nd century B.C. by Agatharchides or Agatharchus of Cnidus, a Greek historian and geographer who said the tribes of the Eastern Desert practised it. Perhaps it was similar in this case, Dr. Gwiazda said.

Several of the dead were placed in four layers, one under the other. So far, archaeologists have not been able to determine whether the bodies were deposited at one time or whether they were added to the tomb from time to time.

The archaeologist emphasizes that the tomb was full of various types of equipment, which proves that it belonged to very important representatives of this ancient city.

The deceased were buried with beads made from onyx (a silicate mineral chalcedony) and carnelian (a brownish-red mineral) that came from Pakistan, India, and even Indonesia.

For the last journey of the dead, several silver rings, earrings and bracelets made of ivory were also placed in the tomb.

Dr. Gwiazda noted that very similar tomb fittings from the same period are known from Upper Egypt and Nubia. There, this type of burial is called royal.

At that time (from the 4th to the 6th century A.D.), Berenice was inhabited by the Blemians who became independent from the power of other Mediterranean empires. It was a little-known, nomadic Nubian tribe inhabiting the mountainous Eastern Desert. However, it controlled territory east of the Nile from present-day Ethiopia to Berenice at the time in question. The authorities administered the city and enriched themselves thanks to participation in trade between the Byzantines and communities living in the Indian Ocean region.

Beads were discovered inside the elite tomb.

“The burial customs of the Berenice community have so far been shrouded in mystery. We wanted to fill this gap,” Dr. Gwiazda added. Researchers had good luck with this discovery because the tomb turned out to be unplundered, which is rare in Egypt, especially in the case of elite burials.

As part of the above-ground part of the tomb, next to the chest with human remains, archaeologists discovered traces of ancient funeral rituals.

Tomb – on the right in the lower corner there is a chest in which there were seven dead.

Scientists report evidence of ancient funeral rituals of a platform and animal remains likely used for sacrifices. Several amphoras have also been found upside down.

According to the researchers, this means that they were emptied during ritual practices. There were also small water storage bottles similar in form to the Arabs still use today. They are famous because the fluids in them keep the temperature low despite the heat.

Inside the tomb, archaeologists encountered yet another surprise. They found the grave of a mother and a child from the same period. It looks as if the dead were cuddled up into each other, described Dr. Gwiazda.

This is probably not the end of exciting discoveries in this area because the tomb explored last season is adjoined on two sides by structures that are very similar in plan.

Beads were discovered inside the elite tomb.

“Our latest discoveries show that in the 4th-6th centuries, Berenice was not a provincial port city at all. It was a city with long-distance contacts,”- said Dr. Gwiazda.

For many years, archaeologists working in Berenice have mainly studied Hellenistic and Roman relics found at the site. So far, no extensive research into human cemeteries from these periods has been undertaken. A few years ago, scientists managed to locate a 2,000-year-old animal cemetery in Berenice. Studies of the remains revealed that the then inhabitants of the city brought monkeys from India, which they treated as domestic mascots, and after their death, they buried them on the outskirts of the cities. Dog and cat cemeteries have also been found in the city.

The city of Berenice was founded in the 3rd century B.C. by the pharaoh Ptolemy II. In the first century A.D, the Romans who took power over Egypt made the city an important hub for trans-oceanic trade linking Black Africa, the Middle East and India. Initially, the port was used for shipping African elephants.

ASIA, IRAQ, WORLD

3,400-year-old ‘lost’ city re-emerges from Tigris River in Iraq

3,400-year-old ‘lost’ city re-emerges from Tigris River in Iraq

The tightening grip of climate change on our planet is revealing secrets buried for millennia. As waters and ice recede under warming conditions, the traces of people and civilizations long gone from the mortal realm emerge.

3,400-year-old ‘lost’ city re-emerges from Tigris River in Iraq
The archaeological site of Kemune in the Mosul Dam.

In recent months, Iraq has been hit particularly hard, battered by extreme drought, with the Mosul reservoir shrinking as water is extracted to keep crops from drying.

Amid this crisis, the ruins of an ancient city, submerged for decades, are once again on dry land. Since the dam was created in the 1980s before the settlement was archaeologically studied and catalogued, its re-emergence represents a rare opportunity for scientists to explore it. The archaeological site has been named Kemune.

The ruins consist of a palace and several other large structures, dating back to the Bronze Age in the region, around 3,400 years ago. Scientists think the ruins might be from the ancient city of Zakhiku, a bustling centre for the Mittani Empire, which thrived on the banks of the Tigris River between 1550 and 1350 BCE.

This isn’t the first time that the city has risen from the waters like a lost Atlantis. In 2018, the dam waters receded enough to give archaeologists a brief window in which to discover and document the ruins, before the water level rose and covered them again.

So, in December of 2021, when the city began to emerge once more, archaeologists were ready to leap in and take advantage of the second brief window.

In January and February of this year, archaeologist Hasan Ahmed Qasim from the Kurdistan Archaeology Organization in Iraq, along with fellow researchers Ivana Puljiz of the University of Freiburg and Peter Pfälzner from the University of Tübingen in Germany, set about mapping the mysterious city.

The walls of a storage building. (Universities of Freiburg and Tübingen, KAO)

In addition to the palace that was uncovered in 2018, the researchers found some other interesting structures. These included a large fortification with a wall and towers, an industrial complex, and a huge, multi-story storage building, all dating back to the Mittani Empire.

“The huge magazine (storage) building is of particular importance because enormous quantities of goods must have been stored in it, probably brought from all over the region,” Puljiz says.

The preservation of the mud-brick walls was rather remarkable, considering they had been underwater for over 40 years, but that was a result of the city’s rather abrupt fall in 1350 BCE.

During this, an earthquake devastated the region, toppling buildings, which resulted in a protective coating of rubble falling over the remaining intact walls, covering their painted murals and the buildings’ contents.

One of the ceramic vessels contains cuneiform tablets. (Universities of Freiburg and Tübingen, KAO)

Fascinatingly, the city also yielded some ceramic jars containing over 100 unfired clay tablets inscribed in cuneiform, dating to the Middle Assyrian, shortly after the earthquake.

The team hopes that these records might contain some information about who lived in the city, and maybe even about the earthquake itself that led to its demise.

“It is close to a miracle that cuneiform tablets made of unfired clay survived so many decades underwater,” Pfälzner said.

The dam has since been refilled, submerging the city once more, but steps have been taken to make sure that it will be preserved for future excavations when the water recedes once more. The ruins have been sealed under plastic coverings that will prevent future erosion and degradation in the years ahead.

In the meantime, the frenzied work has given the archaeologists material to study that may shed light on the lives of the ancient Mittani who lived in the once-great city.

“The excavation results show that the site was an important centre in the Mittani Empire,” Qasim said.

AUSTRALIA, WORLD

First Australians ate giant eggs of huge flightless birds, ancient proteins confirm

First Australians ate giant eggs of huge flightless birds, ancient proteins confirm

Proteins extracted from fragments of prehistoric eggshells found in the Australian sands confirm that the continent’s earliest humans consumed the eggs of a two-metre tall bird that disappeared into extinction over 47,000 years ago. 

Detail from an illustration of Genyornis being chased from its nest by a Megalania lizard in prehistoric Australia. .

Burn marks discovered on scraps of ancient shell several years ago suggested the first Australians cooked and ate large eggs from a long-extinct bird – leading to fierce debate over the species that laid them. 

Now, an international team led by scientists from the universities of Cambridge and Turin have placed the animal on the evolutionary tree by comparing the protein sequences from powdered egg fossils to those encoded in the genomes of living avian species.  

“Time, temperature and the chemistry of a fossil all dictate how much information we can glean,” said senior co-author Prof Matthew Collins from the University of Cambridge’s Department of Archaeology. 

“Eggshells are made of mineral crystals that can tightly trap some proteins, preserving this biological data in the harshest of environments – potentially for millions of years”    

Prof Matthew Collins 

According to findings published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the ancient eggs came from Genyornis: a huge flightless “mihirung” – or ‘Thunder Bird’ – with tiny wings and massive legs that roamed prehistoric Australia, possibly in flocks.  

Fossil records show that Genyornis stood over two metres tall, weighed between 220-240 kilograms, and laid melon-sized eggs of around 1.5 kg. It was among the Australian “mega-fauna” to vanish a few thousand years after humans arrived, suggesting people played a role in its extinction.  

Pencil sketch of a Genyornis by Nobu Tamura.

The earliest “robust” date for the arrival of humans to Australia is some 65,000 years ago.

Burnt eggshells from the previously unconfirmed species all date to around 50 to 55 thousand years ago – not long before Genyornis is thought to have gone extinct – by which time humans had spread across most of the continent.  

“There is no evidence of Genyornis butchery in the archaeological record. However, eggshell fragments with unique burn patterns consistent with human activity have been found at different places across the continent,” said senior co-author Prof Gifford Miller from the University of Colorado.

“This implies that the first humans did not necessarily hunt these enormous birds, but did routinely raid nests and steal their giant eggs for food,” he said. “Overexploitation of the eggs by humans may well have contributed to Genyornis extinction.”

While Genyornis was always a contender for the mystery egg-layer, some scientists argued that – due to shell shape and thickness – a more likely candidate was the Progura or ‘giant malleefowl’: another extinct bird, much smaller, weighing around 5-7 kg and akin to a large turkey. 

The initial ambition was to put the debate to bed by pulling ancient DNA from pieces of shell, but genetic material had not sufficiently survived the hot Australian climate.

Miller turned to researchers at Cambridge and Turin to explore a relatively new technique for extracting a different type of “biomolecule”: protein.

Genyornis eggshell recently exposed by wind erosion of sand dune in which it was buried, South Australia.

While not as rich in hereditary data, the scientists were able to compare the sequences in ancient proteins to those of living species using a vast new database of biological material: the Bird 10,000 Genomes (B10K) project.    

“The Progura was related to today’s megapodes, a group of birds in the galliform lineage, which also contains ground-feeders such as chickens and turkeys,” said study first author Prof Beatrice Demarchi from the University of Turin.

“We found that the bird responsible for the mystery eggs emerged prior to the galliform lineage, enabling us to rule out the Progura hypothesis. This supports the implication that the eggs eaten by early Australians were laid by Genyornis.”

The 50,000-year-old eggshell tested for the study came from the archaeological site of Wood Point in South Australia, but Prof Miller has previously shown that similar burnt shells can be found at hundreds of sites on the far western Ningaloo coast. 

The researchers point out that the Genyornis egg exploitation behaviour of the first Australians likely mirrors that of early humans with ostrich eggs, the shells of which have been unearthed at archaeological sites across Africa dating back at least 100,000 years. 

Prof Collins added: “While ostriches and humans have co-existed throughout prehistory, the levels of exploitation of Genyornis eggs by early Australians may have ultimately proved more than the reproductive strategies of these extraordinary birds could bear.”   

ENGLAND, EUROPE, WORLD

Volunteer delighted to uncover very rude Ancient Roman graffiti at Vindolanda

Volunteer delighted to uncover very rude Ancient Roman graffiti at Vindolanda

You see them scrawled on school desks, toilet walls and underpasses across the UK. However, it seems that the tradition of drawing the male appendage as graffiti goes back far further than any of us would have realised – after a volunteer uncovered graffiti at Vindolanda depicting an explicitly carved phallus.

Dylan Herbert, the volunteer who discovered the stone

The popular museum has found some hugely significant archaeological finds over the years, including the world’s oldest boxing gloves and the largest collection of leather shoes, consisting of around 7,000 items.

Earlier this year, a Roman Altar from the 3rd century AD was uncovered, thought to be from a similar time period to the most recent discovery. Though this one is quite a lot ruder!

Not only was there a drawing, but the 40 x 15cm stone is also engraved with SECVNDINVS CACOR, making the graffiti a very personal insult. Specialists in Roman epigraphy, Drs Alexander Meyer, Alex Mullen and Roger Tomlin, recognised it as a mangled version of ‘Secundinus cactor’ or in English, ‘Secudinus, the sh**ter.”

Retired biochemist Dylan Herbert was delighted to make the discovery on May 19. He said: “I’d been removing a lot of rubble all week and to be honest this stone had been getting in my way, I was glad when I was told I could take it out of the trench.

“It looked from the back like all the others, a very ordinary stone, but when I turned it over, I was startled to see some clear letters. Only after we removed the mud did I realise the full extent of what I’d uncovered, and I was absolutely delighted.”

Volunteer delighted to uncover very rude Ancient Roman graffiti at Vindolanda
The stone with the depiction of a phallus and the insult

Dr Andrew Birley, director of excavations and CEO of the Vindolanda Trust said: “The recovery of an inscription, a direct message from the past, is always a great event on a Roman excavation, but this one really raised our eyebrows when we deciphered the message on the stone.

Its author clearly had a big problem with Secundinus and was confident enough to announce their thoughts publicly on a stone.

“I have no doubt that Secundinus would have been less than amused to see this when he was wandering around the site over 1,700 years ago.”

What do you think of Vindolanda’s latest discovery? Let us know!

Though the Roman phallus is often seen as a good luck charm or symbol of fertility, in this case, the author has taken the meaning and subverted it to their own aims. Each letter has been carefully carved, which would have taken a while, leaving little doubt about the depth of feeling held.

Described as a ‘fabulous’ bit of social commentary, it is expected to amuse visitors for many years to come.

According to the team at Vindolanda, carving such a message would have been one of the best ways to get a lot of people to notice a point of view, centuries before printed papers or social media existed.

Excavations have taken place at Vindolanda for almost 100 years, and in that time the site has chalked up more phallus carvings than any other on Hadrian’s Wall.

The new addition takes that tally up to 13, and while that’s considered unlucky for some, Vindolanda archaeologists hope it’s a great sign for the rest of the excavation season in a huge year for the Wall.