White grape pips found in the Negev dated may be the oldest of its kind worldwide
Researchers from the University of York, Tel Aviv University, and the University of Copenhagen provide new insight into the mystery of ancient Gaza wine.
Grape pips discovered in an excavated Byzantine monastery in Israel provide clues to the origins of the mysterious Gaza wine and the history of grapevine cultivation in desert conditions.
One of the seeds, which was most likely from a white grape, has been dated to the eighth century and maybe the oldest specimen of its kind ever found and recorded.
It is thought it could be linked to the sweet white wine – the Gaza wine – that archaeologists have seen references to in historical records but a lack of evidence of white varieties from the period has left uncertainty over its true origins, until now.
Researchers used genetic analyses to identify several different grape cultivars that were grown in Negev vineyards including both white and black grapes.
Dr. Nathan Wales from the University of York’s archaeology department commented that “this is the first time that genetics has been used to identify the color of an ancient grape and gives us a glimpse into the internationally famous Gaza wine during the period. It also gave us the opportunity to link ancient seeds with modern varieties that are still grown around the Mediterranean today.”
The wine was produced in the Negev and shipped across the Byzantine Empire.
“The modern winemaking industry is heavily reliant on a limited number of European grape cultivars that are best suited for cultivation in temperate climates.
Global warming emphasizes the need for diversity in this high-impact agricultural crop. Grapevine lineages bred in hot and arid regions, often preserved over centuries, may present an alternative to the classic winemaking grape cultivars,” the team wrote.
“Our study of a legacy grapevine variety from the Negev Highlands desert of southern Israel sheds light on its genetics, biological properties, and lasting impact.”
Since the wild vine’s domestication in Southwest Asia over 6,000 years ago, it has been primarily grown for wine.
The team wrote that viticulture (grape growing) and viniculture (winemaking) evolved along multiple historical pathways in various wine regions, producing a plethora of legacy cultivars.
Grapevines produced some of the highest profits of any crop in Byzantine times, and trade from the Negev, for example, with Lebanon and Crete, gave rise to modern varieties of red wine that are still produced in these areas today.
3,000-year-old skeletons of nine children were discovered in Qazvin province, Iran
Archaeologists from the University of Tehran have discovered the remains of children dating back 3,000 years during excavations in an ancient cemetery in the Segzabad region of Qazvin province in central-west Iran.
The excavations, conducted under the supervision of Dr. Mustafa Deh Pahlavan found the remains of some children along with babies and fetuses, also found the remains of two horses, two goats, and a sheep.
The discovery made by Iranian archaeologists was made in an area of five square meters.
“This complex with an area of five square meters and a height of 120 cm, weighing about 10 tons, includes the remains of nine children, a baby, and a fetus, the remains of two adult horses, two goats, and a sheep,” Dr. Mostafa Dehpahlavan said.
Dehpahlavan, who presides over the Institute of Archeology of the University of Tehran, stated that the foundation work has three parts, adding the first part contains the burial remains of a child along with the remains of an immature goat.
Dehpahlavan said: In the eastern cemetery of Qara Tepe, important evidence of five layers of burials and graves on top of each other was obtained on a wide scale.
In this cemetery, the graves do not have a specific direction. Their borders are surrounded by several clay ridges. Aborted fetuses and babies were buried in clay cooking pots. Without exception, the remains of animals such as goats, immature sheep, cows, camels, and horses were found in all the graves, which indicates that animals were buried next to the dead.
The discovered collection has been moved to Segzabad municipality for display and preservation in accordance with conservation and restoration standards due to the unfavorable conditions in the Qara Tepe cemetery.
Based on criteria such as the growth of teeth and the length of long bones, the child’s skeleton is estimated to be less than six years old.
In describing the second part, the archaeology said: “In this part, the burial remains of two adult horses of different breeds can be seen. First, the remains of an adult horse lying on its left side without a skull.
Another smaller adult horse (probably of the Caspian breed) was buried in a huddled form on its right side. Its skull is above the surface of the body in a semi-raised form. This horse has a necklace with bronze beads and a part of the iron bridle of this horse can be seen in the mouth area.”
In his explanation about the third part of this collection, Dehpahlavan stated: This part contains human and animal remains that are in a very chaotic state. Based on the number of visible skulls, a total of eight people were buried in this section. Next to a gray clay cave, the remains of a human fetus can be seen.
In addition, an adult sheep skull can be identified next to the skulls of human fetuses. Also, a container with a vertical handle and a small jug along with a part of the body of a pot with pea color and rope decoration constitute the pottery findings of this section.
The cemetery also found a child’s skeleton next to clay dishes, which can attest to his special social status, as well as burial ornaments like bronze bracelets, a ring, and the remnants of a necklace made of stone, bronze, and ivory beads.
The discovered collection has been moved to Segzabad municipality for display and preservation in accordance with conservation and restoration standards due to the unfavorable conditions in the Qara Tepe cemetery.
2,300 years old amazing preserved looks almost new Celtic scissors discovered in Germany
During a construction project in Munich’s Sendling district, Celtic cremation tombs were discovered. The quality of preservation of the grave goods is impressive: 2,300 years old, and yet it looks almost new: archaeologists have discovered a pair of scissors in a Celtic grave that even has a slight sheen.
Archaeologists from the Bavarian State Office for the Preservation of Monuments (BLfD) also found a folded sword, the remains of a shield and a lance tip, a razor, and a fibula.
Other high-quality grave goods, according to the Bavarian State Office for the Preservation of Monuments (BLfD), demonstrate that the deceased had a high social status.
The current find history began with the search for possible Second World War explosive devices in the Munich district of Sendling. The explosive ordnance disposal team discovered underground structures that could be of archaeological interest and informed the BLfD.
From the 3rd century BC to the 2nd century B.C. the Celts burned their dead and buried the remains in pits together with the grave goods. Other burials in Sendling show that this is a previously unknown burial ground.
The still shiny find from the Celtic grave.
In the middle of a square building that was once highlighted by four individual posts, stood the tomb. As it turned out, a number of items had been positioned near the deceased man’s remains.
The archaeologists were particularly amazed by one discovery: a pair of scissors that had almost no corrosion and appeared brand new.
“A pair of scissors that are more than 2,300 years old and in a condition as if they could still be used today – that’s a very special find,” says Prof. Mathias Pfeil from the BLfD. “The fortunate fact that this tool was so excellently preserved is just as impressive as the craftsmanship of this object,” says Pfeil.
The scissors could have been used to cut hair or textiles, so it was likely a multipurpose tool even then, according to the experts. It’s possible that the Celts also used them to shear sheep.
The archaeologists also found the remains of a shield, a lance tip, a razor, a fibula, and another highlight: a folded sword.
According to the findings, the sword was deliberately heated, folded, and thus rendered unusable. It’s possible that someone wanted to destroy the priceless weapon in order to prevent the looting of the tomb.
The sword could have been made available to the deceased in the afterlife by ritually destroying it in this world, but mythical notions also raise questions as a background.
On the other hand, it might also have been a precaution to calm the dead person’s potentially restless spirit.
The BLfD concludes by listing the most recent discoveries: It is a significant and little-known testament to the region’s Celtic past.
2,600-year-old stone busts of ‘lost’ ancient Tartessos people were discovered in a sealed pit in Spain
Two of the carved figures likely depict goddesses wearing gold earrings.
Archaeologists in Spain have unearthed five life-size busts of human figures that could be the first-known human depictions of the Tartessos, a people who formed an ancient civilization that disappeared more than 2,500 years ago.
The carved stone faces, which archaeologists date to the fifth century B.C., were found hidden inside a sealed pit in an adobe temple at Casas del Turuñuelo, an ancient Tartessian site in southern Spain.
The pieces were scattered amongst animal bones, mostly from horses, that likely came from a mass sacrifice, according to a translated statement published on April 18.
“The unusual thing about the new finding is that the representations correspond to human faces,” Erika López, a spokesperson for the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), said in the statement.
Archaeologists from the CSIC called this discovery “a profound paradigm shift in the interpretation of [Tartessos],” since this ancient civilization, which existed from about the eighth to the fourth centuries B.C., was long considered an aniconic culture in which divinity was represented through animal or plant motifs, rather than idolized humans, according to the statement.
Of the figurative reliefs, two are nearly complete and likely portray female divinities wearing earrings, which could be a nod to the Bronze Aged peoples’ adept goldsmithing skills.
Archaeologists found only fragments of the other three reliefs, but identified one as a warrior wearing a helmet, according to the statement.
Although the Tartessos didn’t leave much of an archeological record, archaeologists do know that they were skilled at goldsmithing; for instance, gold pieces similar to the reliefs’ earrings have been unearthed at two nearby Tartessian sites, Cancho Roano, and La Mata.
These locations were torched to the ground in a similar manner to the newly discovered pit site, but why and how these conflagrations occurred remains a mystery, according to an April 21 Vice article.
Some historians, including the Greek philosopher Aristotle, once linked the Tartessos people to the mythical lost city of Atlantis. However this idea “has been widely dismissed in the scientific community,” according to a 2022 BBC article.
“The finding only further influences both the importance of the site and the importance of the Tartessian culture in the Guadiana valley during its last moments,” López said in the translated statement.
Handaxes from the period of the first human migration out of Africa, circular burial chambers, a collection of rock engravings, and the Arabian Stonehenge. Unique findings are being reported by an international team led by the Institute of Archaeology of the CAS in Prague, which has successfully completed its third excavation season in Oman. The collected samples are now being analyzed by experts and will contribute to the reconstruction of the earliest history of the world’s largest sand desert.
Czech archaeologists have been focusing on the still underexplored desert areas of the Sultanate of Oman for a long time. Their last year’s expedition was the third in a row and several more are in the pipeline. More than twenty archaeologists and geologists from ten countries were involved in the excavations at two different sites in Oman.
The first expedition team was situated in the Dhofar Governorate in the south of the country, while the second group operated in the Duqm province of central Oman. The researchers shared their observations directly from the field on Twitter via @Arduq_Arabia.
The expedition camp in the Rub’ al-Khali desert, southern Oman.
The Arabian Peninsula as a migration corridor
In the dunes of the Rub’ al Khali desert in the Dhofar province, researchers unearthed stone handaxes that date back to the first human migration out of Africa some 300,000 to 1.3 million years ago. Due to its geographical location, Arabia served as a natural migration route from the African cradle of humankind into Eurasia.
Among dunes up to 300 meters high, they managed to find eggshells of extinct ostriches, a fossil dune, and an old riverbed from a period when the climate in Arabia was significantly wetter. “Our findings, supported by four different dating methods, will provide valuable data for reconstructing the climate and history of the world’s largest sand desert. Natural conditions also shaped prehistoric settlements, and what we are trying to do is study human adaptability to climate change,” said expedition leader and coordinator Roman Garba from the Institute of Archaeology of the CAS in Prague.
Nuclear physics is helping history research
Archaeologists use special dating methods to determine the age of the finds. “We carry out radiocarbon dating and cosmogenic radionuclide dating in cooperation with the Nuclear Physics Institute of the CAS, which has newly commissioned the first accelerator mass spectrometer in the Czech Republic,” Garba explained.
Radiocarbon dating and spatio-temporal analysis can also help researchers find out more about the roughly two-thousand-year-old ritual stone monuments – known as triliths. In layman’s terms, they can be likened to England’s better-known Stonehenge. They appear in what is now southern Arabia, and it is not clear exactly what they were used for or who built them.
What is hidden beneath the circular burial chambers?
The second expedition team operated in the Duqm province of central Oman, focusing in particular on a Neolithic tomb dating back to 5,000–4,600 BCE at the Nafūn site.
Excavation of a Neolithic tomb at the Nafūn site, central Oman.
“What we find here is unique in the context of the whole of southern Arabia. A megalithic structure concealing two circular burial chambers revealed the skeletal remains of at least several dozen individuals. Isotopic analyses of bones, teeth, and shells will help us to learn more about the diet, natural environment, and migrations of the buried population,” explains Alžběta Danielisová from the Institute of Archaeology, Prague.
“What we find here is unique in the context of the whole of southern Arabia. A megalithic structure concealing two circular burial chambers revealed the skeletal remains of at least several dozen individuals.
Isotopic analyses of bones, teeth, and shells will help us learn more about the diet, natural environment, and migrations of the buried population,” explained Alžběta Danielisová from the Institute of Archaeology of the CAS in Prague.
Not far from the tomb, there is a unique collection of rock engravings spread out over a total of 49 rock blocs, whose different styles and varying degrees of weathering provide a pictorial record of settlements from 5,000 BCE to 1,000 CE. Researchers also investigated stone tool production sites from the Late Stone Age.
Following the traces of ancient settlements in southern Arabia The research in Oman is part of a wider project by evolutionary anthropologist Viktor Černý from the Institute of Archaeology in Prague. His research focuses on the biocultural interactions of populations and their adaptation to climate change.
“The detected interactions of African and Arab archaeological cultures characterize the mobility of populations of anatomically modern humans.
It will be interesting to confront these findings also with the genetic diversity of the two regions and create a more comprehensive view of the formation of contemporary society in Southern Arabia,” explained Černý, who received the prestigious Academic Award of the Czech Academy of Sciences for the project last year.
The ARDUQ (Archaeological Landscape and environmental dynamics of Duqm and Nejd) expedition was carried out under the auspices of the Omani Ministry of Heritage and Tourism. Researchers from the Czech Republic, USA, Great Britain, Ukraine, Iran, Italy, Slovakia, Austria, France, and Oman took part in the project.
Genetic Study Establishes Native Ancestors Were in Alaska 3,000 Years Ago
In a study published in iScience, researchers analyzed ancient genetic data to show that some modern Alaska Natives still live almost exactly where their ancestors did 3,000 years ago. The researchers studied the genome of a 3,000-year-old female individual and found that she is most closely related to Alaska Natives living in the area today. This discovery strengthens the idea that genetic continuity in Southeast Alaska has continued for thousands of years, shedding light on human migration routes, mixtures among people from different waves of migration, and territorial patterns of Pacific Northwest inhabitants in the pre-colonial era.
Researchers have discovered that some modern Alaska Natives still live almost exactly where their ancestors did 3,000 years ago, highlighting genetic continuity in Southeast Alaska and shedding light on human migration patterns and pre-colonial territorial patterns in the Pacific Northwest.
The first people to live in the Americas migrated from Siberia across the Bering land bridge more than 20,000 years ago. Some made their way as far south as Tierra del Fuego, at the tip of South America. Others settled in areas much closer to their place of origin where their descendants still thrive today.
In “A paleogenome from a Holocene individual supports genetic continuity in Southeast Alaska,” published recently in the journal iScience, University at Buffalo evolutionary biologist Charlotte Lindqvist and collaborators show, using ancient genetic data analyses, that some modern Alaska Natives still live almost exactly where their ancestors did some 3,000 years ago.
Lindqvist, PhD, associate professor of biological sciences at the UB College of Arts and Sciences, is senior author of the paper. In the course of her studies in Alaska, she explored mammal remains that had been found in a cave on the state’s southeast coast. One bone was initially identified as coming from a bear. However, genetic analysis showed it to be the remains of a human female.
“We realized that modern Indigenous peoples in Alaska, should they have remained in the region since the earliest migrations, could be related to this prehistoric individual,” says Alber Aqil, a UB PhD student in biological sciences and the first author of the paper. This discovery led to efforts to solve this mystery, which DNA analyses are well suited to address when archeological remains are as sparse as these were.
The bone that researchers found belonged to an ancient individual that the Wrangell Cooperative Association named Tatóok yík yées sháawat (Young lady in cave).
Learning from an ancestor
The earliest peoples had already started moving south along the Pacific Northwest Coast before an inland route between ice sheets became viable. Some, including the female individual from the cave, made their home in the area that surrounds the Gulf of Alaska. That area is now home to the Tlingit Nation and three other groups: Haida, Tsimshian, and Nisga’a.
As Aqil and colleagues analyzed the genome from this 3,000-year-old individual — “research that was not possible just 20 years ago,” Lindqvist noted — they determined that she is most closely related to Alaska Natives living in the area today. This fact showed it was necessary to carefully document as clearly as possible any genetic connections of the ancient female to present-day Native Americans.
In such endeavors, it is important to collaborate closely with people living in lands where archeological remains are found. Therefore, cooperation between Alaska Native peoples and the scientific community has been a significant component of the cave explorations that have taken place in the region.
The Wrangell Cooperative Association named the ancient individual analyzed in this study as “Tatóok yík yées sháawat” (Young lady in cave).
Genetic continuity in Southeast Alaska persists for thousands of years
Indeed, Aqil and Lindqvist’s research demonstrated that Tatóok yík yées sháawat is in fact closest related to present-day Tlingit peoples and those of nearby tribes along the coast. Their research, therefore, strengthens the idea that genetic continuity in Southeast Alaska has continued for thousands of years.
Human migration into North America, although it began some 24,000 years ago, came in waves — one of which, about 6,000 years ago — included the Paleo-Inuit, formerly known as Paleo-Eskimos. Importantly for understanding Indigenous peoples’ migrations from Asia, Tatóok yík yées sháawat’s DNA did not reveal ancestry from the second wave of settlers, the Paleo-Inuit. Indeed, the analyses performed by Aqil and Lindqvist helped shed light on the continuing discussion of migration routes, mixtures among people from these different waves, as well as modern territorial patterns of inland and coastal people of the Pacific Northwest in the pre-colonial era.
Oral history links an ancient woman to people living in Southeast Alaska today
The oral origin narratives of the Tlingit people include the story of the most recent eruption of Mount Edgecumbe, which would place them exactly in the region by 4,500 years ago. Tatóok yík yées sháawat, their relative, therefore informs not just modern-day anthropological researchers but also the Tlingit people themselves.
Out of respect for the right of the Tlingit people to control and protect their cultural heritage and their genetic resources, data from the study of Tatóok yík yées sháawat will be available only after review of its use by the Wrangell Cooperative Association Tribal Council.
“It’s very exciting to contribute to our knowledge of the prehistory of Southeast Alaska,” said Aqil.
Reference: “A paleogenome from a Holocene individual supports genetic continuity in Southeast Alaska” by Alber Aqil, Stephanie Gill, Omer Gokcumen, Ripan S. Malhi, Esther Aaltséen Reese, Jane L. Smith, Timothy T. Heaton and Charlotte Lindqvist, 8 April 2023, iScience.
Image courtesy: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropological Archaeology Bison skulls excavated from an archaeological site near Roswell, New Mexico. Pictured are objects 83209 a and b.
Early human foragers may have relied on eating the partially digested vegetable matter, called digesta, found in the stomachs and digestive tracts of bison and other large game herbivores.
But foraging hypotheses and models do not include this important source of calories and carbohydrates, according to a University of Michigan study.
Folding digesta into these models will allow researchers to better address major questions in evolutionary anthropology. It even calls into question the idea that “hunting and gathering,” which all prehistoric people relied on until about 10,000 years ago, was divided by sex, according to author Raven Garvey, associate professor of anthropology and affiliate of the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the U-M Institute for Social Research.
Image courtesy: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropological Archaeology Folsom points, which date to between 11,000 and 10,000 years ago, were believed to be used in the prehistoric hunting of bison. This is object 37737.
Early foragers may, in some contexts, have consumed their required portion of “vegetables” in the form of digesta, according to Garvey. Eating not only the herbivores’ meat and organs but also digesta would net a person a significantly higher number of calories, and also would expand the kinds of macronutrients such as protein, fat and carbohydrates available to the forager.
“Failure to account for this underappreciated resource could have important consequences in studies that address major questions in evolutionary anthropology,” she said. “Accounting for digesta as a source of both kilocalories and carbohydrates leads to predictions that differ from foraging models that do not include this resource.”
Garvey’s study, published in the journal Evolutionary Anthropology, explores the significance of digesta in two of these questions: sex-divided subsistence labor and archaeologically observed increases in plant use and sedentism, or the transition to more permanent settlements.
Subsistence hunting
Using estimates of available protein and carbohydrates in the native tissues and digesta, respectively, of a large ruminant herbivore (Bison bison), Garvey shows that, with digesta included, a group of 25 adult foragers could meet the USDA’s average recommendations for proteins and carbs for three days without additional supplementation.
Such a resource could have been crucial in certain contexts, like in areas where plants were scarce or indigestible to humans. It could also have eliminated the need to hunt and gather separately since total nutrition could be obtained from a single resource.
Image courtesy of the University of Michigan Museum of Anthropological Archaeology Folsom points, which date to between 11,000 and 10,000 years ago, are associated with the prehistoric hunting of bison. These points are objects 27673, 39802, 30442, and 37737.
In this way, Garvey’s “bison model” raises questions about the assumption that human subsistence labor was always strongly sex-divided and the traditional picture of exclusively male-provisioning of large-bodied prey. Women’s participation in hunting becomes likelier when high-energy resources can be acquired with low risk. In times and places where large-bodied herbivores were abundant, a group’s overall hunting success could have been improved, and plant-animal scheduling conflicts reduced through women’s hunting.
There is some archaeological evidence to suggest female hunting (and the child care provisioning that would have entailed) was more common during prehistory than in the later ethnographic period, Garvey says. A study of “grave goods” in burials across North and South America, for example, found that perhaps 30%-50% of all large-game hunters in the Americas during the late glacial (late Pleistocene and early Holocene) era, between 8,000 and 13,000 years ago, may have been female.
This strategy might have been influenced both by the relative abundance during that period of large-bodied herbivores and by people’s high mobility. Following migratory game, groups increased the reliability of hunting, but created conditions that reduced the accessibility of edible plants. Digesta consumption would have bridged this resource gap.
Social organization
Digesta consumption could also also have contributed to major changes in dietary breadth and human mobility in the Americas, Garvey says. Her “bison model” indicates that while large-bodied herbivores could provide small human groups’ total nutrition for short periods, the ratio of protein to carbohydrates in a single animal makes digesta an unsustainable source of carbohydrates in the long run.
That is, a 1,000-pound bison could provide a group of 25 adult foragers with three days’ worth of protein and carbohydrates, but if they pursued a fresh animal every fourth day, they would leave approximately 6 days’ worth of protein unconsumed each bison kill.
As human populations grew in size, it would have become increasingly difficult to address the carb deficit: The level of hunting required to ensure sufficient carbohydrates would become unsustainable. In such cases, Garvey says, the need for reliable access to both protein and carbohydrates, without which humans can’t survive, would necessitate significant social reorganization of settlement and subsistence.
Even if herbivores and their stomach contents were not a group’s sole source of key macronutrients—as Garvey notes they likely were not in most times and places—digesta’s positive effect on herbivores’ nutrient profiles could, when available, have affected plant foraging behaviors, relaxing the demand for fresh plant foods and perhaps freeing up time and energy for other activities.
“Many anthropologists are concerned that our evolutionary understanding of humans is disproportionately influenced by contemporary behaviors and cultural expressions that may bear little resemblance to those of the past,” Garvey said. “Allowing for the possible dietary importance of large herbivore digesta and other understudied resources can lead to new interpretations of past behaviors and a healthy reevaluation of assumptions on which our evolutionary hypotheses rest.”
Garvey is the associate curator of the U-M Museum of Anthropological Archaeology and received an Andrew W. Mellon Foundation fellowship last year to train in engineering and explore the effects of wind on hunter-gatherers’ livelihoods and technologies.
Archaeologists discover medieval a tableman gaming piece in Bedfordshire, England
Archaeologists in Bedfordshire, England, have made an intriguing discovery: a tableman gaming piece was discovered at a medieval site.
Cotswold Archaeology excavated in preparation for a Taylor Wimpey housing development at Bidwell West, near Houghton Regis and Dunstable.
In addition to the tableman, the archaeological team discovered a medieval timber-framed building and a series of medieval enclosure ditches.
The gaming piece, which has a diameter of nearly 6cm, is made from a cattle mandible – a large, sturdy bone, which serves as the lower jawbone of a cow, according to a press release. Its face has been decorated with concentric circles and a ring-and-dot design, which is attractive although not unusual.
Tablemen were used to play a variety of board games in which two players rolled dice and moved their pieces across rows of markings.
The term ‘tables’ is derived from the Latin tabula, which originally meant “board” or “plank” and was introduced to Britain during the Roman period.
One of the more popular table games among the Romans was Ludus duodecim scriptorium. It was a dice game with three cubic dice, and each player had 15 pieces to move.
The game of tabula was most likely refined from Ludus duodecim scriptorium, and it grew in popularity during the medieval period. Tabula, like Backgammon, has two rows of twenty-four points.
The tableman found at Bidwell West has a diameter of nearly 6cm (2.36 in) and similar examples in both size and decoration style have been recovered at other sites, including an example from Winchester, Hampshire which was made in the medieval period (11th-13th centuries).
As Cotswolds Archeology also wrote in its description:: “It is not always possible to identify which game the gaming pieces recovered from archaeological excavations would have belonged to, because there is often no surviving board.
However, due to the association with the medieval site, the style of decoration, and the size, it is likely that the gaming piece was used to play tabula during the medieval period.
