AFRICA, KENYA, WORLD

1.5-Million-year-old Footprints have Revealed the Co-Existence of two Ancient Human Species in Kenya

1.5-Million-year-old Footprints have Revealed the Co-Existence of two Ancient Human Species in Kenya

Thanks to a set of preserved footprints on the ancient shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya, researchers have uncovered the coexistence of two ancient human species more than a million years ago.

Estimated to be 1.5 million years old, fossilized footprints offer the first verifiable proof that Homo erectus and Paranthropus boisei, two different hominin species, coexisted in the same habitat. In addition to confirming that these species coexisted, scientists say this discovery provides a unique window into how they interacted and competed in their environment.

The more recent term “hominin” refers to a subgroup of the broader group known as hominids. All living and extinct species regarded as belonging to the human lineage that developed following the split from the great apes’ ancestors are referred to as hominins. This is thought to have happened between six and seven million years ago.

In July 2021, researchers uncovered a hominin footprint alongside tracks made by other animals, such as large birds. A more detailed excavation in 2022 revealed a 12-print trackway and three isolated footprints, along with 94 nonhuman tracks from ancient birds and hoofed animals in Koobi Fora.

Craig Feibel, an author of the study and a professor in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and Department of Anthropology in the Rutgers School of Arts and Sciences., used his expertise in stratigraphy and dating to establish that these footprints were formed 1.5 million years ago.

The footprints belong to two species from the Pleistocene: Homo erectus and Paranthropus boisei. Although they were both bipedal and walked upright, they differed greatly in anatomy, indicating different behavioral and movement patterns.

A footprint hypothesized to have been created by a Paranthropus boisei individual.

He also determined that both sets of footprints were made within a few hours of each other, in soft sediments near the lake. While it is not possible to confirm if the two hominin groups interacted directly, it is clear that they shared the same habitat in a brief time interval.

Kevin Hatala, a biology professor at Chatham University, explained that the footprints were preserved in a “perfect zone of mud” near the lake’s edge, ensuring their survival under layers of fine sediment. “It’s hard to say exactly what they were doing,” he noted, “but they walked in the perfect area for their footprints to be made, which is very lucky for us.”

The species that left the footprints was determined by the researchers using comparative analysis and sophisticated 3D imaging. It was determined that Paranthropus boisei was responsible for the trackway of 12 prints, which featured a slightly spread big toe and a deeper forefoot strike. The three isolated footprints, on the other hand, were associated with Homo erectus because they showed a heel-to-toe motion resembling that of modern humans.

The footprints suggest that these species, with their differing diets and anatomical features, utilized the same habitat, possibly even crossing paths. Hatala emphasized that Paranthropus boisei, known for its robust jaws and plant-based diet, differed greatly from Homo erectus, which had a more human-like body and omnivorous diet.

The footprints are significant, Feibel said, because they fall into the category of “trace fossils” – which can include footprints, nests and burrows. Trace fossils are not part of an organism but offer evidence of behavior. Body fossils, such as bones and teeth, are evidence of past life, but are easily moved by  water or a predator. Trace fossils cannot be moved, Feibel said.

trackway of footprints hypothesized to have been created by a Paranthropus boisei individual.

A new understanding of early human evolution is provided by this discovery, which is the first tangible proof of direct coexistence between two hominin species. By suggesting intricate relationships that influenced their survival and adaptation, the findings cast doubt on the notion that hominin species avoided one another.

In addition to offering concrete proof of the coexistence of two hominin species, this discovery poses fascinating queries regarding their interactions in terms of culture and reproduction. Paranthropus boisei went extinct within a few hundred thousand years, while Homo erectus survived for another million years. The reasons behind this divergence in evolutionary fates are still unknown to scientists.

The findings of the study are published in the journal Science. DOI: 10.1126/science.ado5275

WORLD

New study reveals unique characteristics and complex origins of late Bronze Age swords discovered in the Balearic Islands

New study reveals unique characteristics and complex origins of late Bronze Age swords discovered in the Balearic Islands

New study reveals unique characteristics and complex origins of late Bronze Age swords discovered in the Balearic Islands

A recent study uncovered a wealth of new information regarding the production, material makeup, and cultural significance of Late Bronze Age swords found during several excavations conducted in the 20th century on Spain’s  Balearic Islands in the western Mediterranean.

This cache of weapons includes artifacts that are approximately 3,000 years old, with the collection as a whole dating to the years 1000 through 800 BC, and reveal a fascinating intersection between local traditions and imported technologies, reflecting the increasing connectivity of the Western Mediterranean during this period.

The study, led by Laura Perelló Mateo of the University of the Balearic Islands, used a strategy that combines technological and archaeometric analyses with approaches that consider isotopes and typologies.

In the new study, which was just published in the journal Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, a team of researchers from the University of the Balearic Islands, led by archaeologist Laura Perelló Mateo and her colleagues, analyzed both the manufacturing techniques and the chemical and isotopic compositions of these swords, offering new perspectives on cultural and technological interaction in the region.

Swords found in the Balearic Islands. Image Credit: L. Perelló Mateo et al., Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2024)

There was a notable surge in mobility and cultural exchange in the Western Mediterranean between the 14th and 13th centuries B.C. This led to the introduction of new items and materials, like copper and tin, to the Balearic Islands, which significantly increased the number of metal artifacts.

In  Mallorca, Ibiza, and Formentera, the total weight of metal objects increased from 2.15 kg in the Early Bronze Age to 53 kg in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, the study found. This reflected an increase of metals obtained through trade, which had a significant impact on the eventual development of a sword-making industry.

“These swords incorporate the use of production techniques that were brought over from Iberia throughout the Middle and Late Bronze Ages,” the study authors wrote in their journal article. 

As examples of imported manufacturing and design innovations, they cite lost wax casting, complex bronze alloys (made from copper, tin, and lead), and the production of compound objects.

The Balearic swords analyzed by the researchers showed traces of local manufacturing traditions mixed with ideas originating elsewhere.

In total 18 Late Bronze Age swords were examined, most of which came from the islands of Mallorca and Menorca and classified as Son Oms type, named after the location where they were first found.

The distinctive features of these weapons include solid grips, in place of the disc-or diamond-shaped pommels found on models made elsewhere, and thinner-than-usual blades that attached to the grips through direct casting techniques or via three rivets arranged in a triangular pattern.

Image of the sword from Lloseta and detail of the burrs on the edge of the blade. Image Credit: Archaeology Museum of Catalonia

Their distinctiveness lies in regional adaptations, despite their outward resemblance to swords from the same era in Italy and Central Europe. For instance, in contrast to their continental counterparts, Balearic swords typically have a redefined function and symbolism.

“Though they [the artifacts] take on the formal concept of swords, their role and function would have been completely different to the more generalized use they received on the mainland. Documented evidence allows us to conclude that, largely, these swords were not envisaged or produced for use in combat. Rather, they were created as symbolic objects to be put on display.” the study authors wrote.

The fact that the people of the  Balearic Islands weren’t using swords in battle suggests their manufacture might have been commissioned by elites who could afford to have the materials imported to make them.

b) Image of the sword from Son Foradat and close-ups of the chipped sword blade. c) Image of the sword from Ses Salines and a close-up of the blade made to look like a sheath cast as one single piece. Image Credit: L. Perelló Mateo et al., Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2024)

The origin of the metals used was also disclosed by isotopic analyses. Although sources in Menorca, Mallorca, and, to a lesser extent, Sardinia were also identified, deposits in Linares (mainland Spain) accounted for a significant portion of the copper.

The integration of the Balearic Islands into Mediterranean trade circuits and the existence of intricate exchange networks are both confirmed by these findings.

Perelló Mateo, L., Llull Estarellas, B. & Calvo Trías, M. Almost the same, but not quite: an analysis of Late Bronze Age swords in the Balearic Islands. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 16, 194 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-024-02088-0

Cover Image Credit: Image of the machete from Lloseta (Archeology Museum of Catalonia). Drawing by Delibes and Fernández-Miranda 1988. Image Credit: L. Perelló Mateo et al., Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2024)

NORTH AMERICA, U.S.A, WORLD

Oldest US firearm unearthed in Arizona, a 500-year-old bronze cannon linked to Coronado expedition

Oldest US firearm unearthed in Arizona, a 500-year-old bronze cannon linked to Coronado expedition

Oldest US firearm unearthed in Arizona, a 500-year-old bronze cannon linked to Coronado expedition

Independent researchers in Arizona have unearthed a bronze cannon linked to the 16th-century expedition of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, and it is marked to be the oldest known firearm found in the continental United States.

The 42-inch-long, roughly 40-pound sand-cast bronze cannon was discovered at the location of a Spanish stone-and-adobe structure in the Santa Cruz Valley that is thought to have been a part of the short-lived settlement San Geronimo III.

To finance an expedition to North America in 1539, Vázquez de Coronado took out large loans and mortgaged his wife’s possessions. The Spanish conquistador and his 350 soldiers intended to locate the legendary (and nonexistent) Seven Cities of Gold north of Mexico. By 1541, they had reached southern Arizona, where they established a settlement they called San Geronimo III, or Suya. San Geronimo was the first European town in the American Southwest.

 Rather than accumulating immense wealth, Coronado and his men plied, and spent the next three years plundering, enslaving, and murdering their way across the region.

These transgressions did not go unanswered. In the predawn hours of one fateful morning in 1541, the native Sobaipuri launched a surprise attack on the town. Many settlers were killed in their beds, and the survivors fled in disarray. The cannon — meant to intimidate and protect — was never even loaded.

Although Coronado was bankrupt and facing war crime charges when his expedition came to an end in Mexico City, his impact on North America would last for many generations.

The wall gun was resting on the floor of a Spanish structure. Credit: International Journal of Historical Archeology

One site in particular has produced a large number of artifacts associated with the explorers, according to the authors of a study published on November 21st in the International Journal of Historical Archeology.

Researchers found European pottery, weapon parts, including a 42-inch-long bronze cannon, and glass and olive jar fragments in the ruins of a stone and adobe building in Arizona’s Santa Cruz Valley.

“Not only is it the first gun ever recovered from the Coronado expedition, but consultation with experts throughout the continent and in Europe reveal that it is also the oldest firearm ever found inside the continental USA,” Archaeologist Deni Seymour explained.

The early firearm also called a wall gun, was typically used as a defensive weapon positioned on a wooden tripod on fortification walls and required two operators. However, in Coronado’s case, such a cannon would have been used offensively, typically to pierce the weaker walls of buildings in Indigenous communities.

Archaeologists were able to date the cannon to Coronado’s time using radiocarbon dating and optically stimulated luminescence techniques, and the other artifacts matched descriptions of the supplies and possessions of his expedition.

However, the wall gun’s simple casting suggests that, in contrast to more elaborate Spanish cannons, it might have been built in Mexico or the Caribbean—and possibly even acquired from Ponce de León’s previous expedition.

Seymour, D., Mapoles, W.P. Coronado’s Cannon: A 1539-42 Coronado Expedition Cannon Discovered in Arizona. Int J Histor Archaeol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10761-024-00761-7

Cover Image Credit: A bronze medieval-style wall or rampart gun, believed to have been part of the Francisco Vázquez de Coronado expedition found in southern Arizona. Credit: Deni J. Seymour

ENGLAND, EUROPE, WORLD

One of the largest mass burial pits ever discovered in the UK has been unearthed next to Leicester Cathedral

One of the largest mass burial pits ever discovered in the UK has been unearthed next to Leicester Cathedral

One of the largest mass burial pits ever discovered in the UK has been unearthed next to Leicester Cathedral

While excavating the gardens of Leicester Cathedral for the future construction of a learning center, archaeologists uncovered one of the largest mass burial pits ever discovered in the UK.

Archaeologists initially suspected that this 12th-century burial pit containing the remains of 123 people were victims of the Black Death, but radiocarbon dating revealed that the graves predate the disease by about 150 years.

Researchers questioned whether famine or disease was to blame for the deaths because, despite the size of the burial, no signs of violence were discovered. They are now trying to figure out what led to such an abrupt mass casualty incident.

The team, led by Mathew Morris, Project Officer at the University of  Leicester Archaeological Services, concluded that the pit was filled rapidly in three successive deposits.

Morris, in an interview published by The Guardian, stated that the bodies appear to have been brought in cartloads and dropped into the shaft within a short period. He estimated the buried individuals represented about 5 percent of Leicester’s medieval population.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles repeatedly mention great pestilences and fevers, severe mortality, and miserable deaths from hunger and famine in England from the mid-10th century through to the mid-12th century, said Morris. “This mass burial fits within this timeframe and provides physical proof of what was then occurring across the nation.”

To find the pathogens that could be responsible for the mass deaths, samples have been sent to the Francis Crick Institute in London. The lack of clothing remnants indicates that the bodies were prepared consciously, and burial customs allude to civic organization even in emergencies.

The burial pit was discovered during work for a heritage learning center, which followed the unearthing of Richard III’s remains in 2012.

The identity of  Leicester Cathedral as a house of worship, a destination for pilgrims, and a tourist destination was drastically altered when King Richard III’s remains were found in a parking lot in Leicester. His body was reburied in a purpose-built tomb at Leicester Cathedral in 2015, triggering an increase in the number of visitors to the church.

To keep up with the influx of guests, officials approved plans to build a heritage learning center in the cathedral’s gardens. Archaeologists were brought in to excavate the site ahead of construction — and they revealed nearly 1,200 burials spanning over eight centuries, offering a unique glimpse into Leicester’s past.

ASIA, SYRIA, WORLD

Oldest known alphabet unearthed in ancient Syrian city -500 years older than thought

Oldest known alphabet unearthed in ancient Syrian city -500 years older than thought

Oldest known alphabet unearthed in ancient Syrian city -500 years older than thought

Johns Hopkins University researchers uncovered evidence of the oldest alphabetic writing in human history. The writing was etched onto finger-length clay cylinders discovered during a dig at an ancient Syrian city.

The discovery was announced at the American Society of Overseas Research (ASOR) annual meeting.

During an excavation at an ancient tomb in Tell Umm-el Marra, the team, under the direction of Professor Glenn Schwartz, discovered small clay cylinders marked with what may have been alphabetic symbols.

Once a major city in western Syria, Tell Umm-el Marra is renowned for being one of the first urban centers in the area. Along with researchers from the University of Amsterdam, Professor Schwartz, an authority on ancient cities, co-led a 16-year excavation at the site. Early Bronze Age tombs were found during the excavation.

One of the best-preserved tombs contained six skeletons, gold and silver jewelry, cookware, a spearhead, and intact pottery vessels.

Four small clay cylinders that looked to have early alphabetic writing were discovered by researchers close to the pottery vessels. Each cylinder had a hole in it, and the clay was only lightly baked. According to Professor Glenn Schwartz, the items may have served as labels.

Oldest known alphabet unearthed in ancient Syrian city -500 years older than thought

The writing, which is dated to around 2400 BCE, precedes other known alphabetic scripts by roughly 500 years, upending what archaeologists know about where alphabets came from, how they are shared across societies, and what that could mean for early urban civilizations, according to the researchers.

“The cylinders were perforated, so I’m imagining a string tethering them to another object to act as a label. Maybe they detail the contents of a vessel, or maybe where the vessel came from, or who it belonged to,” Schwartz said. “Without a means to translate the writing, we can only speculate.”

Using carbon-14 dating techniques, researchers confirmed the ages of the tombs, the artifacts, and the writing.

“Previously, scholars thought the alphabet was invented in or around Egypt sometime after 1900 BCE,” Schwartz said. “But our artifacts are older and from a different area on the map, suggesting the alphabet may have an entirely different origin story than we thought.”

Professor Schwartz presented the findings at the 2024 American Society of Overseas Research (ASOR 2024) annual meeting.

Cover Image Credit: The 4,400-year-old clay object discovered at the ancient city of Umm el-Marra, Syria. Glenn Schwartz, Johns Hopkins University.

WORLD

Researchers have unveiled text concealed beneath an intricate decorative layer of gold leaf on a page of the famous Blue Qur’an

Researchers have unveiled text concealed beneath an intricate decorative layer of gold leaf on a page of the famous Blue Qur’an

Researchers have unveiled text concealed beneath an intricate decorative layer of gold leaf on a page of the famous Blue Qur’an

Using multispectral imaging techniques, researchers from the Zayed National Museum have uncovered text hidden beneath an intricate layer of gold leaf on a page of the Blue Qur’an, one of the world’s best-known Quranic manuscripts.

The team uncovered verses from Surah al-Nisa under an intricate layer of gold leaf ornamentation on a page of the Blue Qur’an, one of the most important examples of Islamic calligraphy.

Surah al Nisa focuses on the rights of women, the law of inheritance, care for orphans, lawful and unlawful women to marry, and standing for justice.

The Blue Qur’an is a copy of the Qur’an dating from 800-900 CE. The manuscript is known for its distinctive vivid blue or indigo pages, silver decoration, and gold Kufic calligraphy. Its palette is thought to refer to the purple‑dyed, gilded manuscripts made in the neighboring Byzantine Empire.

The text is written in Kufic script. As in other early Qur’ans, the script here is difficult to read because the letters have been manipulated to make each line the same length, and the marks necessary to distinguish between letters have been omitted.

 It originally comprised 600 sheets, each made from sheepskin. Leaves from the manuscript have been known to scholars since the early years of the 20th century, but it first came to wide scholarly attention in the 1970s, following the publication of several leaves in such international exhibitions as the Arts of Islam at the Hayward Gallery in London.

It was attributed either to ninth-century Iran or Tunisia, where the bulk of the manuscript was said to remain. Some scholars have suggested that the manuscript could have been produced in Umayyad Spain, Kalbid Sicily, or Abbasid Iraq.

Today, only around 100 pages are to be found in private and museum collections around the world, five of which will be displayed at the Zayed National Museum.

The pages were examined using multispectral imaging, a technique that can reveal text and images that have faded over time and are no longer visible to the human eye.

The ornamentation in this instance might have been incorporated to correct a calligrapher’s own mistake, which could have involved copying the text of a page of the sacred script.

Because the cost of producing the manuscript would have been too high to justify beginning anew on a fresh sheepskin sheet dyed in indigo, the text was covered with elaborate patterns.

These actions resulting from decisions made by calligraphers is an aspect of manuscript production that has never been highlighted for the Blue Qur’an before and is exceedingly rarely seen in Islamic manuscripts of this age.

Mai Al Mansouri, Associate Curator, Zayed National Museum said in a press release: “Zayed National Museum’s groundbreaking research on the Blue Qur’an sheds new light on the origins and production of this important manuscript and underlines the role of the museum in the cultural and academic life of the UAE and beyond.”

Nurul Iman Bint Rusli, Curator,  Zayed National Museum said in a press release:: “Only one copy of the Blue Qur’an is thought to exist and the 100 or so of its known pages have fascinated scholars for many decades. The advanced technology used to shed new light on this page of the manuscript is helping to provide additional perspectives on the production of this rare copy of the Qur’an.

This page of the Blue Qur’an will be displayed in the Zayed National Museum’s Through Connections gallery. The gallery highlights how the people of the ancient emirates expanded their horizons, how new materials, technologies, and knowledge affected their lives, how Islam spread, and how the Arabic language evolved.

MEXICO, NORTH AMERICA, WORLD

Scientists Find Aztec ‘Death Whistles’ do Weird Things to the Listeners’ Brains

Scientists Find Aztec ‘Death Whistles’ do Weird Things to the Listeners’ Brains

Scientists Find Aztec ‘Death Whistles’ do Weird Things to the Listeners’ Brains

New research reveals that one of the Aztecs’ most chilling artefacts, clay death  whistles, which resemble a human skull and produce a scream-like sound, not only frightened listeners in ancient times, but also had a profound effect on the human brain’s ability to increase states of alarm and fear.

The new study, published this month in the journal Communications Psychology, investigated the effect of these sounds on modern listeners, finding their ability to elicit negative emotional responses and increased neural activity in the auditory cortex.

For the first time, scientists investigated the effects of these disturbing whistles on the brains of modern European volunteers, conducting two separate experiments with different participant samples.

Aztec death whistles usually skull-shaped were designed to produce a high-pitched, penetrating sound similar to a scream, resulting from the collision of different air currents. Numerous examples have been found in graves dated between 1250 and 1521 CE.

Death whistles are thought to have been used by the ancient Aztecs to intimidate adversaries during battle. They are frequently found alongside the skeletons of sacrifice victims, fuelling suggestions that they might have had more of a ceremonial function.

For example, according to some experts, the death whistles were designed to resemble the piercing winds of Mictlan, the Aztec underworld that was thought to receive sacrificed tributes. Some believe the sound was intended to symbolize the Aztec God of the Wind, Ehecatl, who formed humanity from the remains of the dead.

Researchers used volunteers from modern-day Europe to perform a number of psychoacoustic tests.

When the researchers recorded the participants’ neural and psychological reactions to hearing the death scream, they found that the sound was perceived as “having a hybrid natural-artificial origin,” making it difficult for the brain to categorize.

Research participants described the sounds as “scary” e “aversive”, matching the purpose of using whistles in Aztec rituals and wars.

The psychoacoustic experiments carried out in the study revealed that the brain perceives sound as both natural and artificial, creating a feeling of ambiguity that captures mental attention.

This complex reaction involves lower-order auditory processing and higher-order cognitive systems, amplifying the emotional impact of sound.

Put another way, the death  whistle’s terrifying ambiguity seems to spark the imagination as the brain tries to decipher the sound’s symbolic meaning. The researchers therefore conclude that the whistles’ “usage in ritual contexts seems very likely, especially in sacrificial rites and ceremonies related to the dead.”

These sounds may have been intended to instill fear in victims of sacrifices or admiration to those who attended the ceremonies.

As a result, the researchers suggest that it may have been deliberately used during Aztec ceremonies to evoke strong psychological responses.

Frühholz, S., Rodriguez, P., Bonard, M. et al. Psychoacoustic and Archeoacoustic nature of ancient Aztec skull whistles. Commun Psychol 2, 108 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44271-024-00157-7

ENGLAND, EUROPE, WORLD

A section of one of Britain’s most important Roman roads unearthed under Old Kent Road in south-east London

A section of one of Britain’s most important Roman roads unearthed under Old Kent Road in south-east London

Old Kent Road uk

Archaeologists have found a section of a Roman road under Old Kent Road in south-east  London, part of one of the most important roads built during the Roman period.

The 2,000-year-old road, known as Watling Street, was part of a route from the ancient Roman port at Dover through London to the West Midlands.

Considered one of Britain’s most important Roman roads, the accidental discovery was unearthed as a result of excavation work by Southwark Council and utilities company Veolia to install a low-carbon heat network.

Built shortly after the Roman invasion of Britain in 43AD, it proved very difficult for archaeologists to pinpoint evidence of the route it took, despite Roman roads typically being straight.

“In the planning for this project, we’d expected to solve this question but the extent of survival of the road is remarkable. We hope this project will answer some other archaeological questions in the borough,” explained Southwark Council’s in-house archaeology officer, Dr. Chris Constable, to BBC.

The road was discovered by a team of archaeologists from the Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA), with Dr. Constable providing invaluable advice and assistance.

Southwark Council says the discovery reveals is the first physical proof that sections of it still survive directly beneath its modern counterpart the Old Kent Road.

The ancient route lies directly beneath the modern Old Kent Road.

The well-preserved road segment, which is located south of the intersection of Old Kent Road and Ilderton Road, is roughly 19 feet (5.8 meters) wide by nearly 5 feet (1.4 meters) high.

Southwark Council said distinct layers could be seen and showed a solid foundation of compacted gravel sealed by two layers of chalk, before it was topped with another layer of compacted sand and gravel.

The original surface of the road would likely have been made from the same material and sat at a similar level to the modern road, but this has been lost, says Southwark Council. The base of the modern road was built directly on the Roman fabric.

Gillian King, director of archaeology at RPS Consulting Ltd, described the discovery as “a key finding for archaeological research for London”.

“The discovery of an intact section of Roman Wating Street directly under the current Old Kent Road has redrawn the Roman road map for Southwark and informs on Roman construction techniques generally,” she said.

Dave Taylor, MOLA’s project manager, said: “It’s amazing this section of road has survived for almost 2,000 years.”

He added: “There has been so much activity here over the past few hundred years, from sewers to power cables, tramlines and of course the building of the modern road, so we’re really excited to find such a substantial chunk of Roman material remaining.”

The discovery will be marked by a sign on the nearby Old Kent Road bridge. Find out more about the renewal of Old Kent Road at www.oldkentroad.org.uk

Cover Image Credit: Layers of chalk, sand, and gravel can be visible on the road. Southwark Council

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