Category Archives: AFRICA

AFRICA, WORLD

African Stonehenge – Extraordinary Stone Circles Of Senegambia – Who Were The Unknown Builders?

African Stonehenge – Extraordinary Stone Circles Of Senegambia – Who Were The Unknown Builders?

Throughout human history, mankind has been passionate about building impressive monuments. Very often, this is achieved by building something that is the largest, highest, longest, most expensive, etc. in the world.

Nevertheless, some less imposing monuments, rarely given the same attention, are also of great architectural and technological achievement. Take the Senegambian Stone Circles, for instance.

On average, the stones forming these circles are 2m in height and weigh up to 7 tons each. Although these are not massive structures like those of Stonehenge in England or the Great Pyramids of Egypt, the incredible feature of the Senegambian Stone Circles is that there are more than 1000 of them spread over an area that is 100 km wide and 350 km in length. Now, this is a truly remarkable achievement.

A Senegambian Stone Circle at Wassu.

The Senegambian Stone Circles can be found in West Africa, in the modern countries of Gambia and Senegal. Of the 1000 stone circles, 93 of them have been inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List.

These include the Sine Ngayène complex in Senegal, as well as the Wanar, Wassu and Kerbatch complexes in the Gambia. Apart from these stone circles, the sites also contain numerous tumuli and burial mounds. 

According to the material obtained from the archaeological excavations of some of these features, the stone circles have been dated to between the 3 rd century B.C. and the 16 th century A.D. This suggests that the stone circles were built gradually over a long period of time, which perhaps reflects a tradition that was kept for almost two millennia. 

To construct these stone circles, the ancient builders were first required to identify suitable lateritic outcrops for the carving of the stones. Although this stone is common in the region, great knowledge of the local geology was required to find the best laterite.

Having found the suitable laterite, one would then have to cut and extract the stone from the quarry. This was no easy feat as the stones needed to be extracted in one piece. At quarry sites, monoliths that were broken in the course of extraction were of no value and were left there.

These broken monoliths show traces of microscopic cracks which may have caused them to fragment while being extracted. Therefore, great skill was required when cutting and extracting these stones. Finally, the extracted monoliths were transported and erected at various sites along the River Gambia.

This final process suggests that there was a social organization in place that was able to mobilize the manpower required for this task. Imagine this process being repeated for tens of thousands of monoliths, and you get a sense of the massive scale of the Senegambian Stone Circles.

Some of the Senegambian Stone Circles like within and around villages.

The function of these stone circles, however, remains a mystery to us. It has been suggested that they had a funerary function. In some of the excavations, mass burials were discovered, in which bodies were haphazardly thrown into graves.

This suggests that either an epidemic killed a large number of the region’s inhabitants or possibly that it was some kind of sacrifice. By contrast, it is claimed that Islamic writers recorded that these stone circles were built around the burial mounds of kings and chiefs, following the royal burial custom of the ancient empire of Ghana.

When Islam was introduced into the region in the 11 th century, devout Muslims were also buried in the same way, and these stone circles became sacred places. Therefore, these stone circles may have had various functions. What is certain is that more research is needed in order to better understand their function. 

The Senegambian Stone Circles may not be as well-known as the more imposing monuments of mankind. Nevertheless, I think it challenges our perception of what we consider great monuments.

While we often imagine architectural feats to be one huge building looming over the landscape, the sheer number of stone circles scattered around the Senegambian landscape is a building achievement that is as impressive, if not more impressive, than some of the most famous ancient buildings on the planet.

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

Archaeologist discovered One of the earliest images of Jesus’ unearthed in an Egyptian tomb

Archaeologist discovered One of the earliest images of Jesus’ unearthed in an Egyptian tomb

The house-church found in Dura, where an image of Jesus dating to 235 C.E. was found

The image has been replicated countless times in churches and artwork, but a team of Spanish archaeologists believes they have found one of the earliest images of Jesus.

A mysterious underground room dating from between the sixth and seventh century AD holds an image of a young man with curly hair, who appears to be giving a blessing among other Coptic images.

The Catalan experts who discovered the site in the ancient Egyptian city of Oxyrhynchus think it was the final resting place for a writer and a number of priests

A miraculous discovery! An underground room dating from the sixth century holds an image of a young man with curly hair, who appears to be giving a blessing (pictured) and one expert thinks it could be one of the earliest paintings of Jesus Christ. The image, which is seen here, has been protected from the sun with a thin layer of material

The find has been heralded as ‘exceptional’ by Josep Padró who is leading the exhibition and said the figure accompanies symbols and images of plants that are thought to date from the Coptic period of the first Christians.

Dr. Padró, Emeritus Professor at the University of Barcelona, told La Vanguardia newspaper that the figure is that of ‘a young man with curly hair, dressed in a short tunic and with his hand raised as if giving a blessing.’

‘We could be dealing with a very early image of Jesus Christ.’

Archaeologists are now working to translate inscriptions surrounding the figure in the painting on the wall of the rectangular crypt in a bid to ascertain the man’s identity.

The underground structure measures around eight meters long and four meters deep. Experts from the University of Barcelona, the Catalan Egyptology Society and the University of Montpellier are also unsure of what the function of a structure originally was, but said that the underground stone structure is ‘excellent’ quality.

Tools of the trade: The team of archaeologists also found working tools of a scribe that were buried in the tomb. They include a metallic inkpot which is still full of ink and two new pens for the pens (pictured) for the deceased to write during the eternal life

They also found working tools of a scribe that was buried in the tomb. They include a metallic inkpot which is still full of ink and two new pens for the deceased to write during the eternal life.

Dr. Padró said: ‘The archaeological site of Oxyrhynchus is known for the thousands of papyri found there, but any scribe was found to date.’

While there were no inscriptions hinting at the identity of the deceased, the remains show that the scribe was probably around 17 years old and lived during the Coptic Roman period.

Archaeologists and engineers had to move around 45tonnes of rock to get to the hidden artwork and another unidentified structure close by, which is connected to the tombs by a set of very worn steps.

No-one is sure of what lies inside it, but experts from the University of Barcelona think it might be a temple, perhaps dedicated to god Serapis – the Hellenistic form of Osiris who is the ancient Egyptian god of the afterlife.

The structures are situated in the middle of what was a processional route joining the Nile with the Osireion, the temple dedicated to Osiris, which is one of the greatest findings of Oxyrhynchus.

Egypt’s Minister of Antiquities, Mohamed Ibrahim, has become personally involved with the excavation, The Local reported. The Egyptian ministry will develop the archaeological site to preserve early Christian artwork.

A tomb full of Roman mummies was also found during the excavation.

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

Are Egyptologists Close to Finding a Pharaoh’s Intact Tomb?

Are Egyptologists Close to Finding a Pharaoh’s Intact Tomb?

Archeologists discovered a 3,500-year-old stone chest in the ruins above the Deir el-Bahari Egyptian site.

The remarkable discovery, concealed near Hatshepsut’s famous Mortuary Temple, suggests a nearby intact royal tomb.

There were different items wrapped in linens in the box. One held a sacrificial goose skeleton the other an egg and the third set contained a wooden box holding what was presumably the ibis egg.

The extraordinary find, which was hidden near the renowned Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, indicates an untouched royal tomb could be nearby.
Archaeologists made the extraordinary find in the rubble above the Egyptian site of Deir el-Bahari.

The Warsaw University Institute of Archeology Professor Andrzej Niwiński said to the PAP, “The chest itself is about 40 cm long with a slightly smaller height, It was perfectly camouflaged, looked like an ordinary stone block.

“This turned out to be a chest only after a closer look.” Next to it, the archaeologists found a folded bundle.

In the case of the bundle, the four layers of linen canvas-covered a wooden box, in which there was a faience box in the shape of a chapel. It contained one of the names of Pharaoh Thutmose II.

Prof. Niwiński is optimistic that his team is close to uncovering the untouched burial place of pharaoh Thutmose II.

Prof. Niwiński, who is leading the excavation team, said: “The royal deposit proves the fact that either a temple was established in the king’s name or the king’s tomb.

“Since we are in the centre of the royal cemetery, it is definitely a tomb. Finding this deposit indicates that we are in the process of discovering the tomb.”

The chest is about 40 cm long, with a slight smaller height, which Prof. Niwiński said “was perfectly camouflaged, looked like an ordinary stone block.”

Apart from the pharaoh’s name, the symbolism of the other objects they found also points to the fact, that the deposit was made in his name.

Thutmose II was the husband of the famous queen and his half-sister, Hatshepsut, though their marriage was most probably dictated by dynastic interest.

Thutmose was only 13 when they wed and died three years later in 1479 BC.

Deir el-Bahari has been the site of work for Polish archaeologists for almost 60 years since the father of Polish archaeology, Professor Kazimierz Michałowski, led a mission in 1961 to document and preserve the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut.

During his reign, he was overshadowed by his wife, who would later crown herself pharaoh and become one of the best-known rulers of ancient Egypt.

The stone chest’s discovery, now made public, took place in March last year. The archaeologist continued their work in October 2019, but so far they haven’t found the entrance to the royal tomb.

A faience box in the shape of a chapel contained the name of Pharaoh Thutmose II who was the husband of the famous queen and his half-sister Hatshepsut.

Still, Prof. Niwiński is optimistic that they are close to uncovering an untouched Royal tomb.

Deir el-Bahari has been the site of work for Polish archaeologists for almost 60 years. It started in 1961, when the father of Polish archaeology, Professor Kazimierz Michałowski, led a mission to document and preserve the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut.

AFRICA, SOUTH AFRICA, WORLD

Eggshell beads made by hunter-gatherers 33,000 years ago used as a social network

Eggshell beads made by hunter-gatherers 33,000 years ago used as a social network

New U of T Scarborough research offers physical evidence that ancient hunter-gatherers were exchanging ostrich eggshell beads in order to form large-scale social networks. 

The exchange of ostrich eggshell beads is thought to be the earliest example of social networking among humans. While it’s been theorized for decades this was the case, this study offers the first hard evidence supporting the claim.

“This is evidence of a very early social innovation humans were using to help adapt to their physical environment,” says Genevieve Dewar, associate professor in the department of anthropology and one of the authors of the research.

“The exchange of ostrich eggshell beads, some dating back to the late middle stone age, offers proof that humans were using cultural tools to develop these large networks in order to reduce the risk of living in harsher environments.”  

Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS), the research looked at the archaeological evidence of ostrich eggshell beads in two sites within highland Lesotho in southern Africa.

Ostrich eggshell beads have been used to cement relationships in Africa for more than 30,000 years.

Through isotopic analyses, Dewar and colleagues at the University of Michigan found that the practice stretched back at least 33,000 years ago, the age of the oldest beads found at the archeological sites.

Genevieve Dewar is an associate professor in the department of anthropology at U of T Scarborough and an expert on the origins of modern human behaviour

The exchange of ostrich beads, which persists even today among hunter-gatherers in southern Africa’s the Kalahari Desert, is part of a system of delayed reciprocity known as Hxaro.

The purpose is to solidify relationships among groups, so if one suffers a lack of resources through drought or lack of food, they can rely on other groups living in areas of relative plenty.

“It’s a form of reciprocity that strengthens social bonds,” explains Dewar, an expert on the origins of modern human behaviour.

“If I give you a gift of an eggshell necklace, you are socially obliged to give me one in return. It works best if it’s not done right away, as it establishes a trading relationship between the two parties. Part of the social obligation includes allowing me to come and stay with you when my resources are low, and vice-versa.”

Through further isotopic analyses, the researchers found that beads were originating from at least 350 km, showing that this type of social networking was taking place on a large scale.

Since hunter-gatherers will forage up to 10 km per day looking for food, Dewar says committing so much time and resources to create a tool with no immediate practical purpose show how important the beads were to forging social bonds. 

Archeologists work at rock shelters at Sehonghong and Melikane in southern Africa to uncover beads and the evidence of their origin.

Ostrich eggshell was used by hunter-gatherers to make beads because it’s a fairly common raw material. In fact, the beads are found in archeological sites across southern Africa. 

Dewar says it offers some clues into how Homo sapiens were able to leave Africa and essentially colonize the planet rapidly.

“Previous species, like Homo erectus, were able to leave Africa, but they didn’t adapt as successfully to very diverse environments as humans, so there are important innovations that allowed us to do this.”

She adds that anthropologists are trying to unpack these specific social innovations that humans used in order to move into areas of the world lacking in abundant resources.

“If you have a lifeline back to a place that you know is predictable and plentiful, then you are probably more willing to push on into the unknown.” 

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

Scientists identify ‘mummy juice’ in an Egyptian sarcophagus

Scientists identify ‘mummy juice’ in Egyptian sarcophagus

In Alexandria, Egypt, there was opened a mysterious black granite sarcophagus that dated back to the time Alexander the Grand invaded the city in 331 B.C., has been opened.

This 2,000-year-old black, granite sarcophagus was found in Alexandria, Egypt. Inside, archaeologists found a mix of sewage and skeletons.

The finding was believed that the huge sarcophagus contained Alexander’s remains at the beginning of this month and that opening the sealed and foreboding-looking box would unleash a curse. Neither seems to be true … unless stinky sewage causes some sort of torment.

Archeologists discovered inside the sarcophagus the bones of three skeletons along with the waste. These may be those of soldiers, Egypt’s antiquities ministry said in a statement.

Pictures released by the ministry show the sarcophagus full of the liquid sewage, which must have seeped in at some point.

Analysis of the skeletal remains is ongoing, but initial results suggest that one of the individuals found in the sarcophagus suffered a blow from an arrow, the ministry said in the statement.

No inscriptions or works of art have been found on the outside or inside of the sarcophagus so far. It’s also unclear what artifacts, if any, were buried with the skeletons, the researchers said. An alabaster head of a man was found near the sarcophagus when it was discovered.

Archaeologists with Egypt’s Ministry of Antiquities prepare to open the black granite sarcophagus.

The sarcophagus, which is nearly 9 feet long, 5 feet wide and 6 feet tall (2.7 by 1.5 by 1.8 meters) — the largest found in Alexandria — was discovered with a thick layer of mortar covering much of it, Mostafa Waziri, secretary-general of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, said in a statement released by Egypt’s antiquities ministry.

The mortar led Waziri to suggest that the sarcophagus was never opened after it was buried in Alexandria. It’s uncertain if that suggestion is accurate.

The sarcophagus was discovered by archaeologists from the Ministry of Antiquities who were inspecting an area of land in the Sidi Gaber district of Alexandria before construction took place. Researchers opened the sarcophagus at the site where it was discovered.

The opening of the sarcophagus creates a series of new mysteries for Egyptologists to tackle: Who were these three people? When exactly did they live? What killed them? Why were they buried in such a giant sarcophagus? What were they buried with (if anything)? And how did so much liquid sewage get into the sarcophagus?

Three skeletons and liquid sewage were found inside the black sarcophagus from Alexandria, Egypt.

After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., a line of pharaohs descended from one of Alexander’s generals ruled Egypt for centuries. Once the last pharaoh, Cleopatra VII, killed herself in 30 B.C., the Roman Empire took over Egypt.

These pharaohs were involved in numerous wars and conflicts, and it’s possible the three individuals found in the sarcophagus were killed in one of these squirmishes. One of the skeletons shows signs of an arrow injury, suggesting the three may have died in battle. The exact age of the skeletons is unclear.

Why three skeletons, which may be those of soldiers, were buried in a sarcophagus so massive — Waziri said it may be the largest ever found in Alexandria — is also unknown. In ancient Egypt, it was not uncommon for a sarcophagus to be reused, the bodies of its former occupants removed and new occupants put inside. Whether that occurred with this sarcophagus is unknown.  

It’s also unclear what artifacts, if any, were buried with the skeletons. Any objects placed in the sarcophagus could have been destroyed by the sewage or may be found later when the object is studied in more detail.

After the sarcophagus was opened, it was transferred to Alexandria National Museum for conservation and further study.

AFRICA, WORLD

Medieval Burial Cave Discovered in Gabon

Medieval Burial Cave Discovered in Gabon

The finding of a burial site from the 14th century deep in the tropical forest of Gabon will demonstrate a little known period in Africa’s history.

A cave located in the south-east of the country, which was discovered in 2018 by a French geo-archaeologist, contains hundreds of medieval artifacts with human remains.

“This is a unique discovery in Africa because human remains are almost non-existent,” said Richard Oslisly, leading an expedition financed by the National Agency of National Parks.

An exceptional archaeological cave, Iroungou, was discovered in September 2018 in Gabon by a team of French and Gabonese researchers.

The mission is also funded by the local environmental branch of Singapore’s palm oil giant Olam International, which is well established in Gabon. There are no golden platters or diamonds at the end of the 25 meters (82 feet) of rope needed to reach the floor of the cave, but the site named Iroungou is still a treasure trove for scientists.

Almost 30 skeletons have been discovered on three levels, with more than 500 metallic artifacts made mostly of iron and ranging from knives, axes and spear tips to bracelets and collars. Researchers also found 39 pierced teeth from hyenas and panthers.

Oslisly, 69, only began to speak of the discovery a year afterward, but it has caused a wave of excitement and hope in the regional scientific community.

“This cave will enable us to find out a little more about these peoples of central Africa, largely unrecorded in history,” the French researcher said in his Libreville office, full of local antiquities.

In sub-Saharan Africa, “soils are very acidic, so everything of human and animal origin decomposes very quickly,” said Geoffroy de Saulieu, an archaeologist with France’s Research Institute for Development (IRD).

“It is exceptional to obtain this kind of remains.” With carbon-14 dating practiced on 10 femurs — or thighbones — it was possible to date the skeletons in the cave in the 14th century, a worthwhile discovery in itself.

In this part of the world, vestiges of the past are unusual, but that is also partly because archaeological research is generally insufficiently funded and comes late in the day. The first written texts regarding Gabon came from European adventurers who landed on its Atlantic Coast at the end of the 15th century. It was not until the 19th century that explorers ventured far inland on territory almost completely covered with forest.

The oral record of indigenous clans and families handed down in villages “doesn’t let us go back further than one or two centuries,” said Louis Perrois, a French anthropologist who has studied oral tradition in much of Gabon since the 1960s.

When researchers questioned the elders in villages around the Iroungou cave, nobody was aware of the existence of the site. The villagers said they had no idea who the men and women buried there could be.

Molar teeth extracted from skulls have been sent to France for DNA testing. Scientists can also count on a DNA base compiled with saliva data from peoples across central Africa.

Oslisly hopes to “cross-check the data and, perhaps, to find the descendants of these skeletons,” with the DNA tools used by linguists. In March, a team of anthropologists and specialists in bone pathology — people with skills to diagnose illnesses from remains — were due to go down into the cave.

“We’re going to find out more about the diet of the buried people, and the illnesses they have contracted during their lives,” says Oslisly, still enthusiastic after 35 years of work in Gabon and Cameroon.

“Above all, we’re going to learn what they died of,” he added.

Apart from a collective burial site unearthed at Benin City in southern Nigeria in the 1960s, Iroungou is the only cave grave to be found in Africa. Like the Iroungou skeletons, the bones in Benin City have been dated to the 14th century, an epoch which witnessed the fall of many African civilizations, according to several historians.

Some researchers wonder whether Africa was struck by the Great Plague, over the same decades as it ravaged Europe and Asia. Maybe the Iroungou bones hold an answer.

“In Benin City, the ADN was not saved, but in Iroungou the bones are in very good shape,” de Saulieu says.

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

Teenage girl’s skeleton discovered in a mysterious grave near Egyptian pyramid

Teenage girl’s skeleton discovered in a mysterious grave near Egyptian pyramid

The skeletal remains, hugging in the crypt, of a 13-year-old girl, have been discovered by Egyptian archeologists excavating the pyramid ruins 60 miles out of Cairo.

It is a mystery how or when she died, though the experts say the site itself dates back to the end of the Third Dynasty roughly 4,600 years ago.

The cemetery was empty apart from the skeleton, which was buried in the squatting position, but the team also found two animal skulls and three ceramic vessels nearby that were likely placed as funerary offerings. The skull offerings appear to have come from bulls, according to Egypt’s Ministry of Antiquities.

While the newly-discovered bones (left) indicate the remains belong to a girl who was around 13 years old when she died, much about the burial and the skull offerings (right) are still unclear, the researchers say

Researchers came across the burial during work on the partially-collapsed Meidum pyramid, where the team is excavating a cemetery built near the end of the Third Dynasty.

It’s thought that construction on the Meidum period began at the command of the Third Dynasty’s last pharaoh, Huni, and was continued by Sneferu, the first pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty. Previous efforts at the site uncovered the tomb of Prince Nefar-Maat, Sneferu’s oldest son.

The latest burial was found surrounded by a partially intact brick wall, and the team is now working to restore and reinforce the structures

While the newly-discovered bones indicate the remains belong to a girl who was around 13 years old when she died, much about the burial and the offerings are still unclear.

Researchers do not know the identity of the buried teenager.

The latest burial was found surrounded by a partially intact brick wall, and the team is now working to restore and reinforce the structures.

Elsewhere, in the Sinai Peninsula, the Antiquities Ministry says it discovered an ancient workshop that was used to build and repair ships thousands of years ago.

The site dates back to the Ptolemaic era (332 B.C.-30 B.C) and was found during excavations in the Tel Abu Saifi archaeological site, which is said to have once been the location of the Roman fortress Silla.

The find includes two dry dockyards where the ancient ships were worked on.

Researchers say it dates to the Greco-Roman period in Egypt, which lasted from the arrival of Alexander the Great in the 4th century until the 7th century when the Islamic conquest swept the region.

AFRICA, SUDAN, WORLD

Skeletons of war dead from 11,000 BC go on show at the British Museum

Skeletons of war dead from 11,000 BC go on show at the British Museum

Lying on their left sides, curled together, the two skeletons on display for the first time at the British Museum look peacefully laid to rest.

The skeletons were buried with weapons.

But the razor-sharp stone flakes among the bones are the remains of ancient weapons. The two are among the oldest known war dead in the world, men who died 13,000 years ago.

The cemetery they came from, on the banks of the Nile in what is now northern Sudan, is famous among archaeologists: dating from about 11,000 BC, it is among the oldest organized burial grounds in the world. However, the finds have never been exhibited before.

“These were tribes mounting regular and ferocious raids amongst themselves for scarce resources,” curator Renee Friedman said.

“There were many women and children among the dead, a very unusual composition for any cemetery, and almost half bore the marks of violent death. These people lived in extraordinarily violent times.”

The bodies were laid on their left sides, heads to the south and looking east – towards the source of the river and the rising sun, on which survival depended.

“Before this date, we find isolated burials of bodies just placed in holes in the ground,” Friedman said. “These come from a time when the hunter-gatherers are starting to put down roots, and burying their ancestors is a very powerful way of laying claim to the land. But clearly they had to defend it, not once but many times, at a terrible cost.”

The cemetery at Jebel Sahaba now lies deep under the waters of the Aswan dam.

They were excavated in the 1960s by the American archaeologist Professor Fred Wendorf, in one of the Unesco-funded rescue digs to save as much history as possible before the waters rose.

Wendorf recovered the remains of 61 individuals, with weapons. When he retired from the Southern Methodist University of Texas in 2001 he presented his collection to the British Museum in London.

“Often with remains from such an ancient time, we will never know what happened to them,” Friedman said. “With these skeletons, there is no question: we found arrowheads lodged in spines, spear points that had pierced eye sockets … The lives and deaths of these people were not nice.”