Thousand-Year-Old Goblet Shows Ancient Romans Used Nanotechnology

Finally, researchers have discovered why the jade-green cup appears red when lit from behind. The colourful secret of a 1,600-year-old Roman chalice at the British Museum is the key to a super­sensitive new technology that might help diagnose human disease or pinpoint biohazards at security checkpoints.

When lit from the front, the glass chalice, known as the Lycurgus Cup because it bears a scene involving  King Lycurgus of Thrace, appears jade green when lit from the front but blood-red when lit from behind—a property that puzzled scientists for decades after the museum acquired the cup in the 1950s.

The mystery wasn’t solved until 1990 when researchers in England scrutinized broken fragments under a microscope and discovered that the Roman artisans were nanotechnology pioneers: They’d impregnated the glass with particles of silver and gold, ground down until they were as small as 50 nanometers in diameter, less than one-thousandth the size of a grain of table salt.

The exact mixture of the precious metals suggests the Romans knew what they were doing—“an amazing feat,” says one of the researchers, archaeologist Ian Freestone of University College London.

The ancient nanotech works something like this: When hit with light, electrons belonging to the metal flecks vibrate in ways that alter the colour depending on the observer’s position.

Gang Logan Liu, an engineer at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, who has long focused on using nanotechnology to diagnose disease, and his colleagues realized that this effect offered untapped potential.

“The Romans knew how to make and use nanoparticles for beautiful art,” Liu says. “We wanted to see if this could have scientific applications.”

When various fluids filled the cup, Liu suspected, they would change how the vibrating electrons in the glass interacted, and thus the colour. (Today’s home pregnancy tests exploit a separate nano-based phenomenon to turn a white line pink.)

Since the researchers couldn’t put liquid into the precious artefact itself, they instead imprinted billions of tiny wells onto a plastic plate about the size of a postage stamp and sprayed the wells with gold or silver nanoparticles, essentially creating an array with billions of ultra-miniature Lycurgus Cups.

When water, oil, sugar solutions and salt solutions were poured into the wells, they displayed a range of easy-to-distinguish colours—light green for water and red for oil, for example.

The proto­type was 100 times more sensitive to altered levels of salt in solution than current commercial sensors using similar techniques.

It may one day make its way into handheld devices for detecting pathogens in samples of saliva or urine, or for thwarting terrorists trying to carry dangerous liquids onto airplanes.

The original fourth-century A.D. Lycurgus Cup, probably taken out only for special occasions, depicts King Lycurgus ensnared in a tangle of grapevines, presumably for evil acts committed against Dionysus, the Greek god of wine.

If inventors manage to develop a new detection tool from this ancient technology, it’ll be Lycurgus’ turn to do the ensnaring.

University of Cambridge: Remains of 1,300 scholars are found under a building

Some were sickly Cambridge University scholars, other homeless wayfarers or simply the infirm.

Having fallen on hard times, and being too poor to care for themselves, they all ended up receiving spiritual succour during their last days in the medieval Hospital of St John the Evangelist, set up in 1195.

After they died they were buried in the hospital’s own cemetery whose exact site and scale was a mystery for centuries – until a lecture hall belonging to a Cambridge college needed refurbishing.

To their amazement, archaeologists digging under the Old Divinity School – a Victorian building owned by St John’s College, which was founded in 1511 on the site of the hospital and which takes its name from it – unearthed the cemetery and the remains of 1,300 people.

Details and photographs of the eerie find are made public for the first time.

Experts said it is one of the largest medieval hospital cemeteries ever discovered in Britain and, with on-going DNA analysis of the remains, will help to cast fresh light on life and death in medieval times. 

The archaeologists broke out the floors of the Old Divinity School and the team of 20 dug down inside each room. 

In a six-month dig, they found some 400 almost perfectly preserved human skeletons and the partial remains of up to 900 more, all dating from the 13th to 15th centuries. 

Craig Cessford, of the Cambridge Archaeological Unit, said: ‘It was known that the cemetery was in that area, but we didn’t know for definite it was where we were working. 

‘It was quite amazing to find.’ Most of the skeletons are of 25 to 45-year-old men. The hospital was run by Augustinian monks, and pregnant women were excluded.

Mr Cessford, 45, said the skeletons were buried in neat rows and once the cemetery was full, more were buried on top.

The names of the dead are a mystery, but the cemetery was found to have had gravel paths, suggesting that people visited their deceased loved ones.

The bodies did not exhibit many serious illnesses and conditions. 

The Archaeological Journal, which reports on the findings in its latest issue, says this reflects how medieval hospitals’ main role was ‘spiritual and physical care of the poor and infirm rather than medical treatment of the sick and injured’.

Archaeologists uncover prehistoric graves and human remains in the East of England

The Ely Standard reports that two Bronze Age graves were found in the East of England during the archaeological investigation of land slated for construction. One of the graves held the remains of an elderly woman whose shoulder showed signs of arthritis and had lost most of her teeth. 

Orbit Homes secured planning authority to build 149 homes on land between Regal Lane/Blackberry Lane and the A142 in Soham in February 2019.

Before construction began, Orbit homes wanted to carry out expert archaeological work as part of the pre-development scheme, and an exploration of the area uncovered some interesting discoveries.

The excavation, undertaken by Albion Archaeology, included two human graves which contained the skeleton of an elderly woman who had arthritis in her shoulder and lost most of her teeth, while the other was a middle-aged man with a bad back.

David Ingham, project manager at Albion Archaeology, said: “Two human burials were found in graves and these are currently thought to be Bronze Age, but radiocarbon testing will confirm this.

“No trace was found of an Iron Age houses, though the remains of two timber structures were identified, which could have been small granaries.”

The dig also uncovered pottery, animal and plant remain, as well as evidence of Roman ditches, with most Anglo-Saxon activity on the site was largely represented by a concentration of pits in the western half of the area.

However, Mr Ingham said there was no evidence of a Roman settlement within the site.

He said: “The identified remains may have formed part of a much wider landscape in which people and animals moved from pasture to pasture over relatively large distances.”

The first settlement on the field dates back to the Iron Age, but earlier signs of activity have been discovered which are thought to go back to as far as 2,500 BC.

Ian Fieldhouse, land and new business director for Orbit Homes in the East, added: “Around half of the six-hectare site has been excavated with further investigations taking place in December.

“Once all the data has been collated, we can continue with construction in March 2021.

“It has been a really interesting exercise; it was fascinating to learn that the findings date back to prehistoric times.”

Once building construction work begins on the homes, where 41 will be made affordable, show homes are then due to open in Autumn 2021.

‘Remarkable’ Roman villa found buried under a field in North Wales

A Roman villa near Rossett was discovered – the first of its kind ever to be discovered in northeast Wales. The find, made by Wrexham Museum, the University of Chester and Archaeological Survey West, represents an exciting addition to our knowledge of the area during the Roman period.

With the partnership of local metal detectorists who found Roman material on the site, the site was uncovered, this sparked a remote sensing survey which revealed clear evidence of a buried structure.

The remains appear to be of a fairly typical form with a number of stone and tile buildings surrounding a central courtyard, the survey also suggested its association with a field system, a trackway and other related buildings and structures.

Fieldwalking at the site has yielded artefacts from the late 1st century to the early 4th century AD, suggesting that the villa was occupied for the majority of Roman rule in Britain.

The Roman army invaded Britain in AD 43 and quickly pushed northwards and westwards across the country. The fortress at Chester was established around AD 74 and with relative peace came the establishment of a network of towns and rural settlements.

Most villas were essentially farming establishments, although ranged from relatively simple in design to very grand with mosaic floors, bathhouses and underfloor heating systems.

The discovery of architectural fragments found during fieldwalking suggests that this villa may incorporate at least some of these grander features.

Dr Caroline Pudney, senior lecturer in Archaeology at the University of Chester, said: “This exciting discovery potentially alters our understanding of north east Wales in the wake of the Roman conquest.

“Previous interpretations suggest that most people in this area either lived in settlements associated with Roman military sites or in quite simple farmsteads that continued to utilise Iron Age roundhouse architectural forms. The identification of the villa now questions this narrative.”

Councillor Hugh Jones, lead member for people at Wrexham Council and the local Member for the Rossett ward, said: “This discovery is remarkable and just goes to underline the significant number of fantastic archaeological discoveries that have taken place in and around Rossett in recent years, whether it be Bronze Age such as the wonderful Burton Hoard or the Roman lead pig (or ingot) that is currently on display at the Museum.”

The museum and the university are now planning a programme of work to further investigate the site over the next few years subject to funding and appropriate permissions.

The work on the project to date has been funded by the Roman Research Trust and supported by Wrexham Museum and the University of Chester.

4,000-Year-Old Jet Necklace Found At Isle Of Man Round Mounds Dig

During an archaeological excavation on Man Isle, a 4,000-year-old necklace was discovered. The piece of jewellery, located in the west of the island, consists of 122 beads of 1cm and 5cm each which are “intricately” decorated.

Centred in Whitby, North Yorkshire, it is the first of its kind to be found on Man Island. The necklace was crescent-shaped and made of several strings when completely assembled.

The Round Mounds of the Isle of Man project hopes to discover more about Bronze Age burial practices and the island’s connections with other parts of the British Isles.

The excavation of the ancient burial sites has been running for four years. More than 40 experts and students from two UK universities worked on this year’s four-week dig near Kirk Michael.

The cremated remains of seven people have been found on the site to date but this was the first time an “inhumation”, or skeletal remains, has been uncovered.

Rachel Crellin, of the University of Leicester, is leading the project alongside Chris Fowler of Newcastle University. She said that although the necklace was “undeniably beautiful”, the “real value” of the find was the burial itself.

The grave would allow the team to “connect it up to this story about Britain and Ireland,” Dr Crellin added.

The “deliberate” placing of stones, thought to be a grinding stone and cutting block, next to the body could be of “particular significance” regarding “things like food, productivity and fertility,” Dr Fowler added.

Funding for the project was provided by Manx National Heritage (MNH) and the two universities.

MNH Director Edmund Southworth said it was “hoped” the “very fragile” necklace would be put on display, but that would be “some considerable time away”.

The piece will now be digitally reconstructed, while scientific analysis will be carried out on the human remains.

Decapitated Skeletons, with Heads Between Their Legs, Unearthed in Roman Cemetery

Archaeologists discovered that a third of the skeletons were decapitated at a fourth-century Roman grave site in England, an unusually high percentage, even for the Roman Empire.

“Low proportions of decapitated burials are a common component of Roman cemeteries,” said Andy Peachey, an archaeologist at the site, to the East Anglian Daily Times. “It is rare to find such a high proportion of decapitated burials in Britain… Perhaps only half a dozen other sites in Britain demonstrate this.”

Out of the 52 skeletons archaeologists have identified in Suffolk county’s Great Whelnetham village, 17 are decapitated with their head placed between their legs. These beheadings occurred after the people had already died—meaning that none of them was executed in this fashion.

“This appears to be a careful funeral rite that may be associated with a particular group within the local population, possibly associated with a belief system (cult) or a practice that came with a group moved into the area,” Peachey said.

The 17 beheaded skeletons are male and female, with one belonging to a child around nine or ten years old.

Most of the 52 skeletons in the graveyard are middle-aged or older. They show signs of poor dental hygiene but were well-nourished. Some of them had tuberculosis.

The reason archaeologists examined the site in the first place is that there is a planned housing development there. In Europe, archaeological discoveries are often made in preparation for public works projects.

That’s how researchers found a pair of medieval thigh-high boots in the mud of the River Thames, an ancient Roman library in Germany and a motley collection of artefacts in the city of Rome.

Archaeologists are still studying the skeletons in Great Whelnetham and will publish a report on their findings when they have finished. Until then, it’s difficult to speculate on why these 17 skeletons were singled out for beheading rites; previous examples of Roman beheadings don’t necessarily shed light on the reason these skeletons were decapitated.

In the city of York, England, there’s a second- and third-century Roman grave site where most of the 80-some skeletons were decapitated. Researchers found that these decapitated people migrated to York from as far away as modern-day Syria or Palestine.

But unlike the Great Whelnetham skeletons, the decapitated skeletons of York were all men whose remains suggest they were gladiators or soldiers. For some of them, decapitation probably was the way they died.

The skeletons at Great Whelnetham seem to have met a gentler fate.

48,000-Year-Old Neanderthal Baby Teeth Analyzed

A big landmark in human evolution is the moment a baby weans from milk to eating solid foods, and now a recent study shows that ancient Neanderthal babies might have taken a similar path.

The new discovery gives groundbreaking insights into how these ancient humans lived, based on chemical analysis of Neanderthal baby teeth. And historically holding theories on how the species died out might even turn around, too.

The lives of young Neanderthals are still poorly understood by anthropologists, partly because the fossil record for these young hominids is so sparse. As a result, researchers have often flip-flopped on what they think early life looked like for these babies, and what set Homo sapiens apart.

The report, published Monday in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, explains how Neanderthals’ milk teeth were studied by researchers. By comparing their results to humans who lived during the same period, the researchers have uncovered some striking similarities between our species.

Baby teeth are by their very nature temporary, but they’re actually an incredibly important indicator of an animal’s energy requirements, maternal lifestyle, and overall species longevity — ancient hominins included.

Alessia Nava is co-first author of the paper and a post-doctoral anthropology researcher at the University of Kent. She explains that the similarities discovered between ancient humans and Neanderthals are not just an indicator of cultural practices, but evidence of similar physiological needs.

“In modern humans, in fact, the first introduction of solid food occurs at around 6 months of age when the child needs a more energetic food supply, and it is shared by very different cultures and societies,” Nava said in a statement. “[With our study], we know that also Neanderthals started to wean their children when modern humans do”.

Essentially, both our species weaned their babies and introduced foods at about the same time in their development, the results suggest.

DENTAL DISCOVERIES 

The researchers looked at three ancient Neanderthal milk teeth, found in a region of Italy. The teeth belonged to Neanderthal infants living between 45,000 and 70,000 years ago. They also analyzed the baby teeth of a single human child, who lived during the Upper Paleolithic era, which began about 40,000 years ago.

To read the histories hidden in these baby teeth, the scientists studied the tissues making up each tooth and performed chemical analysis. This allowed them to read the tree ring-like growth record left behind in the enamel of these teeth. This biological record also captures the moment the infant switched to eating solid food.

The researchers found that both the Neanderthal babies and the Upper Paleolithic human baby transitioned to eating solid foods at around the same age — between their fifth and sixth months of life.

ANCIENT FAMILY LIFE 

The discovery tells researchers a lot more than just the feeding habits of these ancient babies, the study’s lead author and professor of physical anthropology at the University of Bologna, Stefano Benazzi, said in a statement.

These teeth hold important clues to the physiology and maternal experience of Neanderthals, too.

“This work’s results imply similar energy demands during early infancy and a close pace of growth between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals,” Benazzi said. “Taken together, these factors possibly suggest that Neanderthal newborns were of similar weight to modern human neonates, pointing to a likely similar gestational history and early-life ontogeny, and potentially shorter inter-birth interval”.

The researchers also gleaned more information about the Neanderthal family’s lifestyle — including that Neanderthal mothers may have tended to stay at home with their infants.

The findings also tell us more about how our ancient relatives died. This study overturns the consensus that weaning age — and its relationship with maternal fertility — somehow contributed to the Neanderthals’ eventual demise as a species. The idea here was that because Neanderthals weaned their children on a different timeline to humans, that could have affected their fertility rate.

But because Neanderthal babies appear to have similar energy requirements and weaning habits to ancient as well as modern humans, other factors — shorter overall lifespans, juvenile mortality, and cultural behaviour — may have been more likely culprits in precipitating Neanderthals’ extinction.

More research will be needed before we can truly piece together the complex history of these ancient hominins’ time on Earth. But the study adds to the mounting evidence that we are not so special a species as we like to think.