Oldest evidence of animal butchery in India found from extinct elephant fossil

In a groundbreaking discovery, researchers have unearthed the earliest evidence of animal butchery in India, dating back 3,00,000 to 4,00,000 years.

The findings, published in two recent studies, shed light on the activities of early humans in the region and provide valuable insights into an extinct elephant species.

The fossils were first discovered in 2000 near Pampore in the Kashmir Valley, but their significance remained unclear until now.

A team led by Advait Jukar, a curator at the Florida Museum of Natural History, has revealed that the remains belong to at least three ancient elephants of the genus Palaeoloxodon, which were more than twice the size of modern African elephants.

The researchers identified elephant bone flakes at the site, suggesting that early humans struck the bones to extract marrow. This discovery pushes back the earliest known evidence of butchery in India by nearly 2,90,000 years.

Alongside the elephant remains, 87 stone tools were found, likely used for marrow extraction. These tools, made from basalt not native to the area, indicate that early humans transported raw materials to the site for tool-making.

The most complete skull belongs to a mature male Palaeoloxodon turkmenicus, a rare species previously known only from a partial skull fragment found in Turkmenistan. This specimen provides crucial information about the evolution and migration of the Palaeoloxodon genus.

While the evidence clearly shows human exploitation of the elephant carcasses, there are no signs of hunting. The elephants may have died naturally, possibly weakened by chronic sinus infections evident in their skull remains.

This discovery not only provides insights into early human behavior but also fills gaps in our understanding of elephant evolution in South Asia. As Jukar notes, “The specimen could help paleontologists fill in the story of how the genus migrated and evolved”.

The findings highlight the need for more comprehensive archaeological surveys in the region. As Jukar suggests, future excavations should focus on collecting all bone fragments, not just intact specimens, to uncover more evidence of early human activity.

These studies, published in Quaternary Science Reviews and the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, mark a significant advancement in our understanding of prehistoric life and human activity in the Indian subcontinent.

Indian archaeologists unearthed over 4,000-year-old war chariots in Royal Tombs, in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh

In July 2018, India’s state-owned Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) team unearthed war chariots, swords, and helmets more than 4,000 years old at Sinauli in the state of Uttar Pradesh.

Researchers have recently dated the discovery, which comprises royal burials along with chariots, weapons, and ritual artifacts, to approximately 4,000 years before the present, or 2000 BCE.

The discovery of chariots in the Indian subcontinent is a first, according to the researchers. Researchers say that similar weapons were also possessed by people in this subcontinent when the Mesopotamians used chariots, swords, and even helmets in battle in 2000 BC.

The archaeological site of Sinauli has been subject to archaeological excavations since 2005 and has revealed the existence of a necropolis with more than 120 burials, some of which belonged to high-status individuals, probably warriors or leaders.

The most striking aspect of the excavation was the discovery of three complete war chariots. The archaeologists also found a slew of, a torch, an antenna sword, highly decorated coffins, helmets, and an impressive variety of copper artifacts The astonishingly well-preserved remains are similar to those found in the late Harappan phase.

Studies have shown that the artifacts from Sinauli are associated with the Ochre-Colored Pottery (OCP) Culture, which flourished between 2000 and 1500 BCE in the area where the Yamuna and Ganges rivers converged. This period roughly corresponds with the late phase of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Sinauli is the first archaeological site in the Indian subcontinent to provide evidence for chariots, royal tombs, and chariots with elements of warfare during the OCP/Copper Treasure culture in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, indicating that the Sinaulians were involved in warfare activities.

The finding of war chariots is particularly noteworthy because it puts this culture on par with other contemporary civilizations where chariot use is known, like Mesopotamia and Greece.

Interestingly, most wooden artifacts were layered with copper sheaths, inlays, and wires,  which prevented them from decomposing for nearly 4,000 years. The recovered antiquities of this culture indicate their high degree of sophistication in wood and copper craftsmanship.

Copper geometric motifs, such as triangles arranged on the wheel spokes, adorn the chariots discovered at Sinauli, indicating that these carriages served as both practical and symbolic representations of authority and prestige.

Another important discovery at the site is a royal burial containing a wooden coffin decorated with copper anthropomorphic figures, all wearing double-horned helmets and sacred fig leaves (Ficus religiosa).

Two complete chariots, two copper decorative staffs, an ornamented whip, gold and steatite beads, and numerous pieces of pottery were discovered in this same burial. All of this points to a high-ranking individual—possibly a commander or military chief—being interred in this tomb.

Earlier evidence of wooden coffins from the Indian subcontinent was recorded at Harappa, the site of the Indus civilization in present-day Pakistan, the researchers wrote in their paper.

The radiocarbon dating of the wooden remnants from the coffins and chariots, along with the organic remains discovered in the funerary vessels, supports this dating, which situates the Sinauli culture in the region during a transitional phase between the Copper and Bronze Ages.

The research was published in the Journal Radiocarbon. (An International Journal of Cosmogenic Isotope Research)

2,600-year-old Terracotta Pipeline found in India

During the 10th phase of archaeological excavations at the Keeladi archaeological site in Tamil Nadu, India, archaeologists uncovered a terracotta pipeline that shows the existence of an ancient water management practice practiced by humans 2,600 years ago.

Ancient city Keeladi in southern India serves as a reminder that our ancestors had some pretty clever tricks up their sleeves, just when you thought modern plumbing was the pinnacle of human achievement.

In the latest news from this archaeological goldmine,  excavations have revealed a 6th-century B.C.E. terracotta pipeline. Previously, the archaeologists found an open drain, a closed channel, and small tanks in Keeladi.

Located approximately seven miles southeast of Madurai, the Keeladi archaeological site has been a hidden gem since Archaeological Survey of India researcher K. Amarnath Ramakrishna discovered it in 2014.

More than 20,000 antiquities and artifacts have been discovered in the last ten years; each one whispers a story of a sophisticated society that once flourished along the banks of the Vaigai River.

Excavations revealed a closed channel, an open drain, and several small tanks, all of which indicated a very well-planned water management system.

The most remarkable discovery, however, is a cylindrical terracotta pipeline. It appears from this ancient engineering marvel that the Keeladi people were doing more than just collecting water in clay pots from the river.

The recently discovered pipeline, according to representatives of the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology, is made up of six cylindrical structures that are about 14 inches (36 cm) long and 7 inches (18 cm) wide. These cylinders are carefully assembled to form a single, continuous pipeline that is 174 centimeters long.

“This has been fully unearthed now. This pipeline continues to the adjacent trench. This could have been used for carrying protected water,” a representative from the department said.

Analyses of various artifacts from the site have demonstrated that as early as the 7th century B.C.E., Tamil society was operating a prosperous, industrial settlement. This shifts the timeline of the Sangam era and the origins of the Tamil script considerably further back.

Also, artifacts unearthed from Keeladi suggest that the Tamils were aware of iron technology as far back as 2172 B.C.E., a staggering 4,200 years ago.

Around 400-year-old Bronze idols found during house construction in India

Three bronze idols, estimated to be about 400 years old, were unearthed during excavation for a house construction project in the Mohammadpur Baghanki village of Manesar in the northern Indian state of Haryana.

According to the statement made by the police department, the idols were taken under protection, and construction work was ordered to stop.

The archeology department will start excavations to see if there are other idols in the region.

The idols are of Hindu deities – Lord Vishnu and Mata Lakshmi. The size of the standing Lord Vishnu idol is about 1.5 feet. With a height of one foot, the Lakshmi idol is seated and somewhat smaller. Both the idols have intricate carvings and designs. The third idol depicts Vishnu and Lakshmi sitting together.

The police stated that the idols were found during the excavation for a new house foundation, and construction work was underway using a JCB machine.

The plot owner initially made an effort to hide the discovery and even offered money to the JCB driver in exchange for keeping the details secret. But after two days, the driver notified the Bilaspur police, and they sent a team to the location, according to them.

The villagers consider the discovery as a sign of divine blessing. According to the police, the villagers wanted the idols to be handed over to the panchayat as they wanted to build a temple on the plot. The Archeology Department officials, however, refused their demand.

Deputy Director of the Archeology Department Banani Bhattacharya, said, “These idols are the property of the government and no one can have personal rights on these. These will be kept in the museum of the Archeology Department after study in our laboratory.”

He added that the idols were found at a depth of around 15 feet and were made of bronze.

Speaking with the Times of India, Bhattacharya said, “The idols have been transported to our laboratory for further study.

The archaeology department plans to use scientific methods to determine the exact age of the statues.

According to a preliminary examination, they seem to be around 400 years old. It appears someone buried them long ago. The Manesar area doesn’t have any previous findings, but we will examine the matter.”

Officials stated that they would look for inscriptions or markings that could provide clues about the statues’ origins. They also issued an appeal to the public asking them to cooperate and not disturb the site or the artifacts.

It is noteworthy to mention that Haryana, a state rich in cultural and historical heritage, is a common place to find ancient idols. It is the location of several significant archaeological sites, such as the stone carvings in Aravalis, Faridabad, and the remnants of the Indus Valley Civilization at Rakhigarhi.

Rudra – Mighty Hindu God Of Death, Destruction, Hunting Who Heals Mortal Diseases

In the Rig Veda, an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns, some of them are dedicated to a powerful and complex god Rudra, praised as the ‘mightiest of the mighty.’ He is Lord of Yoga, the one who restores the wholeness of the absolute.

However, he is much more than that.

He is described as a mighty god, armed with a bow and black arrows, flying fast, wearing a scythe, accompanied by Maruts, who in Vedic and Hindu mythology, are the deities symbolizing storm, thunder, wind, thunder, and lightning, and so does the great Rudra himself.

In addition, he is associated with disease, misfortune, and even death, but as a hunter – dressed in animal skins, with long black hair pulled into a knot, and with a bow and black arrows – is also closely associated with mountains and forests.

To attest to his mighty powers, we must add that Rudra is also the king of medicines and a healer, as he could bring diseases and heal from them.

The people turned to him with prayers for mercy and health and called him “Having a sedative healing remedy,” “Holder of a thousand healing remedies,” or “The most healing of healers.”

Sometimes, he holds the arrow in his hand and acts as a destructive power and a plant (or a water vessel) in the other to demonstrate the revitalizing abilities that pulsate in plants, water, and heals.

To heal the illnesses of mortals, the mighty Rudra comes up with a much better idea than the one given to him by the god Brahma, who asked him to plunge into waters to create mortals.

According to Rigveda, Rudra decided to develop the plants and herbs to become the mortals’ best medicines. The fiery nature of Rudra makes him comparable to the qualities of a Vedic god of fire, Agni,  also one of the supreme deities of the Vedic lore.

It happens that Rudra (the Vedic precursor of Shiva, the destroyer) is remembered as ‘the roarer’ and the one ‘who eradicates problems from their roots. He is also associated with the god of death, Yama.

But scholars sometimes considered him as the “fertility god of the Indus valley, whose symbol was the bull. He is, however, sometimes depicted in the posture of a yogi. These aspects suggest a link to the later Shiva. In the Rig Veda, Rudra, whose wife’s name, Prsni (“water bag,”) is a bringer of life-giving rain and other boons. As a fertility god, he is represented by the phallus (or linga), which will take on increased importance in the Shiva cult.” 

His weapons are a bow, an arrow, and a trishula, which in Greek mythology is known as the trident.

The trishula (in Sanskrit, “triple-spear”) represents a mysterious symbol of great importance in India. It was later the weapon of Shiva (‘the destroyer’). Three prongs reflected Shiva’s function as creator, destroyer, and preserver and represented the Law (Dharma), the basic principles of personal or cosmic or existence – divine law.

This mighty deity of the Hindu pantheon developed later into the powerful god Shiva, with whom he was often associated as Rudra/Shiva. Young, fast, invincible, and untouchable, Rudra dwells in the north, with which, as well as with the west, everything cold, darkness, and evil are connected, according to the ancient Indian model of the world.

Rudra’s wife was Sati, the daughter of the lord of all creatures, Daksha. Sati was deeply in love with her husband, who was handsome, strong with powerful arms, and a body decorated with ornaments of gold and a brilliant necklace. His chariot is swift, and a club, lightning bolt, or bow and arrows never miss a target, making him a great danger to his enemies.

In excavated ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa dated to the Indus Civilization that existed between 3000 and 2000 BC,) archaeologists found “a seated figure with crossed legs, three heads, and surrounded by animals.

“The figure is the position of meditation, which is still used by yogis nowadays. This nameless god is undoubtedly a precursor of Shiva, the Lord of the Three Worlds, the Prince of Ascetics, and the Protector of the Animal Kingdom.

Interestingly, the first name by which this god is found in the Vedas is – Rudra. Rudra is above all a violent god, the god of storms and destruction., who is also feared by the other gods, although there were  benevolent aspects even at that time.” 

Later, in post-Vedic mythology, the cult of Shiva developed from the cult of Rudra. His very name (and his epithets Pashupati, “master of cattle,” Sharva, etc.) later became one of the nicknames of Shiva.

The Hanging Pillar of Lepakshi Temple that Challenges Gravity

Gravity, the powerful force that rules our world, seems rigid and invincible. Still, tucked away in southern India is a beautiful architectural marvel known as the “Hanging Pillar,” which is said to challenge this very force. Yes! You read that right.

It dates back to the 16th century. This remarkable monument is located within the Veerabhadra Temple in Lepakshi and is dedicated to Lord Shiva’s furious manifestation, Veerabhadra.

The temple is adorned with beautiful sculptures and paintings that grace almost every visible surface. It displays the distinguishing Vijayanagara-style architecture. The magnificence and historical importance of Lepakshi Temple makes it one of the most notable Vijayanagara temples, revered as a nationally conserved monument.

The temple is divided into three sections: the Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum), the Arda Mantapa (antechamber), and the Mukha Mantapa/Natya Mantapa/Ranga Mantapa (assembly hall).  Nonetheless, the Hanging Pillar, indeed, is a testament to architectural ingenuity.

Location and Historical Significance

The Lepakshi Temple, also known as the “Veerbhadra Temple,” is located in the Lepakshi village of Anantapur District in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is an outstanding example of both engineering innovation and artistic skill. It has many components that add to its archaeological and aesthetic splendor, such as exquisitely carved statues of musicians and saints and those showing a sacred couple of deities –  Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati. In addition to its architectural significance, the temple is highly revered since the Skanda Purana refers to it as a “divyakshetra,” a place of worship of Lord Shiva.

The Lepakshi Temple was built in the 1530s CE by two brothers named Virupanna Nayaka and Viranna. During King Achutaraya’s reign, both served as governors for the Vijayanagar Empire.  You can find many Kannada language (predominantly spoken in southwestern India) inscriptions here.

The origins of Lepakshi are shrouded in mythology and narratives. According to one legend, Jatayu, a vulture deity depicted in the epic Ramayana, fought Ravana fiercely to save Sita, Lord Rama’s wife. Jatayu bravely fought after being hurt before collapsing to the ground. While Lord Rama and his brother Lakshmana were searching for Sita, they found Jatayu battling for his life, holding his last breath. When he found Jatayu in such a helpless state, overcome with grief, Lord Rama said the words “Le Pakshi,” which means “rise, bird” in Telugu.

The complex contains several other temples besides the Veerabhadra Temple, which is under consideration for UNESCO’s world heritage list (tentative list.) These include the shrines of Hanumalinga, Raghunatha, Parvati, Ramalinga, and Papanasesvara. There are many other attractions in this area, in addition to the well-known Hanging Pillar.

The Monolithic Bull, called the Nandi, is another noteworthy feature of Lepakshi. This enormous bull (approximately 20-foot high and 30-foot long) sculpture was cut from a single granite rock.

The Naga Shiva Linga is another impressive piece of architecture. The structure’s seven-headed hooded serpent and lingam (a representation of Lord Shiva) together make for a stunning sight. Lepakshi provides a fascinating cultural and historical experience for sure.

Is the Hanging Pillar Actually a Miracle?

The Hanging Pillar in Lepakshi, which is made of granite, is a spectacular phenomenon that draws a lot of attention. Among the temple’s 70 pillars, this one stands out because it is hanging without touching the ground. Owing to this, many visitors to the temple cannot resist passing a piece of cloth or paper beneath the bottom of the pillar to confirm its authenticity. 

The puzzle of how this pillar manages to remain hung without any support is still unexplained and remains a mystery. It adds an aura of intrigue and surprise to the temple, supported by around 70 pillars. The pillar is also engraved with beautiful carvings.

As per the local folklore, in India’s pre-independence era, a curious British engineer once tried to move the hanging pillar to figure out the source of its support. Realizing the importance of each pillar in safeguarding the balance of the whole structure, he wisely stopped, saving the structure from collapsing. Despite a slight displacement, the pillar stood still. This led to the displacement of the hanging pillar.

Another folktale talks of British engineers who wanted to make renovations and chose to remove the pillar. It was so perfectly fixed that they couldn’t move it. But they didn’t give up. Therefore, they could only move it slightly, and they realized it wouldn’t be possible to take it out completely, resulting in the pillar being slightly displaced from its original position. Considering these are folklore, the mystery still prevails around the hanging pillar.

A 2,300-Year-Old Elephant Sculpture Discovered in India

Archaeologists in eastern India have unearthed a statue of an elephant they think was carved about 2,300 years ago when Buddhism was the main religion in the region. 

The statue is about 3 feet (1 meter) high and carved from rock in the same style as other Buddhist statues of elephants found across the state of Odisha.

Historian Anil Dhir and other members of an archaeological team from the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) unearthed the statue in April at a village on the banks of the Daya River in Odisha’s Puri District. “We were surveying the Daya River Valley to document its heritage,” Dhir told Live Science in an email. “This area is rich in artifacts from the ancient Buddhism which flourished here.”

The team found several other buried archaeological relics around the village, including architectural pieces from a Buddhist temple, he added. 

The elephant statue is very similar to one found at Dhauli, also known as Dhaulagiri, an ancient center of Buddhism about 12 miles (19 kilometers) upstream, Dhir said. That statue has been dated to between 272 B.C. and 231 B.C. 

Buddha and Hinduism

Buddhism originated in northern India in the sixth or fifth century B.C. and was one of the main religions under Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire in the second century B.C., the historian Upinder Singh of Ashoka University in India wrote in “History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century” (Pearson India, 2009). The empire covered most of India, including what’s now Pakistan, but not the very south of the subcontinent.

And from the third century B.C. until about the second century A.D., Buddhism “held sway” throughout much of India and the Odisha region in particular, Dhir said.

But Buddhism’s influence declined as its practices became assimilated into the myriad traditions of Hinduism and when Islam became more influential in the region after the 10th century; and while Buddhism is now widespread in other parts of Asia, it is only followed by about 0.7% of the modern population of India, according to a 2011 census. (The Buddha is worshipped, however, in some Hindu ceremonies, sometimes as an avatar of the god Vishnu.)

According to a statement by INTACH, the floodplains of the Daya and Mandakini rivers are rich in Buddhist antiquities.

Records also suggest that a fort was built at the site in the 16th century, and the INTACH team has found remnants of its defensive walls and moat.

Elephant symbolism

Dhir said the elephant was a common motif in Buddhism and could be seen in many Buddhist monuments.

The INTACH statement said the recently unearthed elephant statue was found near a pillar of laterite — a reddish clay material — and other stone blocks: Similar finds were also discovered alongside another elephant statue found in the village of Kaima in Odisha’s Jajpur District. 

Art historian Christian Luczanits of SOAS at the University of London told Live Science that elephants were important royal animals in ancient India and symbolized the monsoon rains and fertility. 

Peter Harvey, a historian of Buddhism and a “faith advisor” at York St John University in the U.K., added that the elephant was also the mythical animal ridden by the pre-Buddhist god Indra, who was identified in early Indian Buddhism as a disciple of the Buddha and named Sakka (also spelled Śakra).

The elephant’s direct connection to Buddhism came about from a story that the mother of Siddhartha Gautama — the Indian prince who would become the Buddha — dreamt after he was conceived that “an auspicious white elephant [had] entered her womb,” Harvey said. 

Rishi Rajpopat, the Indian Ph.D. student at Cambridge, cracks 2,500-year-old ‘father of linguistics’ Panini code

A grammatical problem which has defeated Sanskrit scholars since the 5th Century BC has finally been solved by an Indian PhD student at the University of Cambridge, it emerged as his thesis was published on Thursday.

Rishi Rajpopat made the breakthrough by decoding a rule taught by Panini, known as the father of linguistics, and is now encapsulated in his thesis entitled ‘In Panini, We Trust: Discovering the Algorithm for Rule Conflict Resolution in the Astadhyayi.’

According to the university, leading Sanskrit experts have described Rajpopat’s discovery as “revolutionary”.

The 2,500-year-old algorithm decoded by him makes it possible, for the first time, to accurately use Panini’s so-called “language machine”.

Panini’s grammar, known as the Astadhyayi, relied on a system that functioned like an algorithm. Feed in the base and suffix of a word and it should turn them into grammatically correct words and sentences through a step-by-step process.

However, two or more of Panini’s rules often apply simultaneously, resulting in conflicts. Panini taught a “metarule”, which is traditionally interpreted by scholars as meaning “in the event of a conflict between two rules of equal strength, the rule that comes later in the grammar’s serial order wins”. However, this often led to grammatically incorrect results.

Rajpopat rejected the traditional interpretation of the metarule. Instead, he argued that Panini meant that between rules applicable to the left and right sides of a word respectively, Panini wanted us to choose the rule applicable to the right side. Employing this interpretation, he found the Panini’s “language machine” produced grammatically correct words with almost no exceptions.

Panini’s system is thought to have been written around 500 BC.

“I had a eureka moment in Cambridge,” recalls Rajpopat. “After nine months trying to crack this problem, I was almost ready to quit, I was getting nowhere.

So, I closed the books for a month and just enjoyed the summer…. Then, begrudgingly I went back to work, and, within minutes, as I turned the pages, these patterns started emerging, and it all started to make sense…,” said the 27-year-old scholar. It would take him another two and half years before he would get to the finish line.

“My student Rishi has cracked it – he has found an extraordinarily elegant solution to a problem which has perplexed scholars for centuries.

This discovery will revolutionise the study of Sanskrit at a time when interest in the language is on the rise,” said professor Vincenzo Vergiani, Sanskrit professor and Rajpopat’s PhD supervisor. Sanskrit is an ancient and classical Indo-European language. It is spoken in India by an estimated 25,000 people today.