Terracotta Warriors Discovered in China Near Emperor’s Tomb
Archaeologists have uncovered more than 20 new Terracotta Warriors, life-size figures built to protect the first emperor of China in the afterlife.
Archaeologists found more than 20 Terracotta Warriors in one of the pits around the tomb of the 1st emperor of China. One of those pits is shown here.
The Terracotta Army is thought to consist of 8,000 sculpted “warriors” located in three pits about a mile northeast of the mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huang (259 B.C. to 210 B.C.), who unified China in 221 B.C. Archaeologists have excavated about 2,000 of these lifelike soldiers, which were buried with weapons such as crossbows, spears and swords, some of which are still intact.
Qin Shi Huang became king of Qin in 247 B.C., one of several states jockeying for land and power in China. For decades Qin had been growing larger, gradually seizing territory ruled by other states; and in 221 B.C., Qin’s rivals were defeated and Qin Shi Huang became emperor of China.
The Terracotta Warriors were created with life-like detail.
Chinese historical texts say nothing about the Terracotta army or why it was built.
The army could have been a way to elevate the emperor’s status, particularly because after Qin Shi Huang’s death in 210 B.C., his family was overthrown by a rebellion led by what would become the Han Dynasty; that dynasty likely did not want to highlight the first emperor’s achievements.
In addition, modern-day archaeologists often interpret the army as being created to serve Qin Shi Huang in the afterlife.
The newly discovered warriors were unearthed in “pit one,” China Global Television Network (CGTN) reported.
This pit contains mainly infantry and chariots; a few of the warriors are generals and can be identified from their more elaborate headgear.
A picture of the newly excavated warriors published on the television network website appears to show only infantry, but at least one of the newfound warriors is a general, CGTN reported.
The archaeological team did not return requests for comment at the time of publication.
Although the website of the Emperor Qin Shi Huang Mausoleum Site Museum didn’t have any information on the newly found warriors, it did say it is common for the warriors to be found in pieces and put back together.
These warriors will now be placed back together. It remains to be seen if any colour survived on the newly found warriors or what new information they will reveal about the Terracotta Army.
2,500-Year-Old Helmets Worn By Ancient Greek Warriors Found Among The Ruins Of An Acropolis In Italy
Archaeologists in southern Italy have discovered ancient warrior helmets and the ruins of a painted brick wall at a site that might have been a forerunner of a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, officials said Tuesday.
The temple and helmets were found at the ‘acropolis’ of Velia.
Italian Culture Minister Dario Franceschini said the remains dug up at the popular tourist site of Velia were found on what had been an acropolis of one of Magna Graecia’s most important cities.
Velia is 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Paestum, a much-visited site of ancient Greek temples.
The two helmets were found in the same location at Velia.
The recently completed excavation at Velia unearthed a pair of helmets in good condition, the remains of a building, vases with the Greek inscription for “sacred” and metal fragments of what possibly were weapons, the culture ministry said.
State Museums Director Massimo Osanna, who formerly had long directed excavations at Pompeii, Italy’s most celebrated excavated site, said the area explored at Velia probably contained relics of offerings made to Athena, the mythological Greek goddess of war and wisdom, after a key naval battle in the nearby Tyrrhenian Sea.
In the 6th-century B.C. battle of Alalia off the coast of Corsica, Greek forces were victorious over Etruscan forces and their Carthaginian allies.
Velia is famed for being the home of an ancient Greek school of philosophy, including philosophers Parmenides and Zeno.
It was part of Magna Graecia, the area of southern Italy colonized by Greek city-states.
The settlement at Velia occupied an upper part, or acropolis, of the area as well as hillsides, and was surrounded by a wall. The city’s ancient name was Elea.
Velia’s founding dates to about 540 B.C. by colonists from Asia Minor.
Franceschini said the discoveries yielded by the Velia excavation underscored the importance of investing in archaeological research to reveal “important pieces of the history of the Mediterranean.”
Lebanese museum returns millennia-old antiquities to Iraq
A trove of archaeological objects, including more than 300 cuneiform tablets, were returned to Iraq from Lebanon over the weekend. Allegedly looted from several Iraqi archaeological sites, the artefacts had been exhibited in the Nabu Museum, a private institution in northern Lebanon founded by the businessman Jawad Adra.
Adra and his wife, former Lebanese defence minister Zeina Akar, have repeatedly denied any involvement in the international trafficking of cultural property, according to the Lebanese French-language newspaper L’Orient Le Jour.
The handover took place at a ceremony at the National Museum of Beirut, attended by the Lebanese Minister of Culture Abbas Mortada, the Iraqi Ambassador to Lebanon Haydar Chayyah Barrak, and Adra.
Iraqi antiquities were displayed during a ceremony held at the National Museum of Beirut.
A total of 337 artefacts were returned. Speaking at the ceremony, Mortada stressed the “common destiny of Lebanon and Iraq,” saying that “Beirut is in the hearts of the Iraqis, just as Baghdad is in the hearts of the Lebanese.” Barrak thanked the Lebanese people and government “for the continued cooperation that made this happy ending possible.”
The Nabu Museum opened in Heri, on the Lebanese coast, in 2018.
Named after the Mesopotamian god of literacy and wisdom, it houses a selection of the couple’s collection of 2,000 artefacts dating from prehistory to the Byzantine era.
According to Adra, the aim of the museum is to “preserve and protect the regional ancient history, which would otherwise be scattered across the world.”
The museum has been under scrutiny for several months by international authorities for housing antiquities that were believed to have been illegally smuggled out of Iraq.
Earlier this year, Iraq asked Interpol to issue a red notice against the museum and demand the restitution of hundreds of Sumerian tablets.
The couple cooperated voluntarily with the investigation, with Akar travelling to Baghdad to negotiate the repartition of the artefacts.
Local news outlets report that the artefacts likely originated from the ancient Sumerian city, Irisagrig, which was a frequent target of smugglers after the U.S. invasion of Iraq.
In 2017, the U.S. craft store chain Hobby Lobby was fined $3 million and forced to surrender thousands of objects that had been smuggled from the area.
In recent years Iraq has increased efforts to recover cultural property looted during periods of political turmoil. Last year, the United States returned more than 17,000 smuggled artefacts to Iraq, including statues and Mesopotamian carvings dating back to 4,000 years.
The handover included the Gilgamesh tablet, a 3,500-year-old cuneiform object thought to be one of the world’s oldest religious texts. It is believed to have been stolen from an Iraqi museum in 1990 and to have entered the U.S. in 2007. (It had been sold several times before being acquired by Hobby Lobby for $1.67 million at a 2014 auction.)
At the time of that return, the Iraqi foreign minister Faud Hussein said that his government would “spare no effort to recover the rest of our cultural heritage throughout the world.”
Archaeologists have hauled up 12 more Revolutionary War-era cannons from the Savannah River, a remarkable find that raises questions about which vessels carried them and precisely how they ended up in the water. The local district of the US Army Corps of Engineers, which is in charge of the deepening of the channel in Savannah’s busy harbour, on Tuesday posted a video and photos about the discoveries.
A crew guides a cannon lifted from the Savannah River in mid-January.
Last month’s raising of the rusted artefacts brings to 15 the number of cannons, plus fragments of another, found in the past year during preparation for the port expansion project.
“There is no telling what all is down there,” Corps district archaeologist Andrea Farmer told CNN, saying “so much of the river is unknown.” That’s because the river bottom is strewn with everything from Native American pottery that was pushed downstream, to a small amount of debris from a Civil War ironclad that sank in 1864 and other vessels lost over time in the colonial Georgia city. Archaeologists said they would have expected the cannons to have been found during maintenance dredging.
One of the artillery pieces is kept in a protective trough at a Savannah facility.
When the first three cannons were located during dredging last February east of the town’s famous River Street, near Old Fort Jackson, archaeologists and Britain’s Royal Navy offered an intriguing possibility about their source.
They said — based on measurements and appearance — the cannons may be from the HMS Rose, a famed British warship that mixed it up with colonists during the revolution or, as the UK calls it, the War of Independence. Nearly 250 years ago, the British scuttled the ship in the Savannah River to block the channel and prevent French ships from coming to the aid of colonists trying to retake the city.
But they quickly learned that theory does not hold water, so to speak. The HMS Rose, it turns out, was sunk farther up the river and its artillery apparently was removed beforehand. British archives indicate the cannons may have belonged to two or more British troop transports also sunk to block the channel. Farmer says officials believe the cannons are associated with the Revolutionary War. Experts are looking for any distinguishing marks or features that can help verify their provenance, such as a known inventory of what a ship was carrying. The goal is to match the artefacts with a specific vessel or wreck.
So why were British troops in Savannah?
A short refresher course might be in order to answer that question. The 13 colonies, determined to gain their independence, fought the forces of King George III on land and sea. The British, hoping they would gain support from royalists in the South, took Savannah in 1778, only to find themselves defending it less than a year later. The HMS Rose, with its 20 cannons and 160 sailors, and other vessels were brought in to help fellow Redcoats.
The British warships Phoenix and Rose engaged with American vessels in New York during the Revolutionary War. Experts say the Rose led to the formation of the precursor of the US Navy.
The warship was already famous, having been a “scourge” on the colonists, as the Royal Navy puts it. It quelled smuggling in Rhode Island, prompting the formation of the forerunner of the US Navy. The Rose fought in and patrolled New York waterways and parts of the Eastern Seaboard before it sojourned south. In Savannah, the vessel was sacrificed by the Royal Navy on September 19, 1779, to keep French allies from joining the American siege at that point in the river.
“The French had blockaded the port of Savannah, getting ready to attack,” Stephen James, an archaeologist with Commonwealth Heritage Group, says in the Corps video. “They scuttled these troop transports to keep the French out and basically saved the city early on from being taken over. They plugged the channel to where … the French could not come up and take the city.”
Two cannons are displayed during an Army Corps of Engineers briefing in early 2021.
It’s possible that the cannons may have belonged to the HMS Venus or HMS Savannah, which were burned or scuttled as part of the British strategy. The British eventually won the battle and controlled Savannah until almost the war’s end. The cannons appear to date to the mid-1700s — predating the Civil War by about a century — which aligns closely with the HMS Rose’s history. The ones found last February are about 5 feet long. Further study and the removal of sediment on the cannons may provide information on when and where they were manufactured.
“I think it’s fantastic and interesting when artefacts from maritime history come to light,” Cmdr. Jim Morley, serving as the UK’s assistant naval attache in Washington, told CNN last year. “It just gives us an opportunity to look back at our common maritime history and history in general.”
CNN reached out Tuesday to Morley for further comment.
More research and analysis lies ahead
The Army Corps of Engineers utilizes contractors for much of its work, and that is the case with historic artefacts found in the water, such as the cannons found in a deep spot called Five Fathom Hole. Salvage divers assisted Commonwealth Heritage Group in lifting the ordnance from the channel. Divers can work only during high or low tide and when no freighters are passing directly overhead. Conditions are hazardous and the government has discouraged treasure hunters from diving in these waters. A diver enters the water in December 2021. Crews have explored Revolutionary War and Civil War sites.
A diver enters the water in December 2021. Crews have explored Revolutionary War and Civil War sites.
“The tide turns and it turns like that. You got zero vis (visibility),” diver Richard Steele says in the video. “The current is ripping you, you are holding on for dear life half the time, trying to hike your way through down there. Every time you get in the water, you are racing the clock.” Crews placed slings beneath the cannons and used inflatable lift bags to free them from the mud. They were moved to a holding area in advance of the January recovery.
It’s possible the cannons come from several ships — whether for combat or ballast.
Farmer said she does not believe they are associated with the CSS Georgia, a Confederate ship that defended the city during the Civil War. It was stationed in the vicinity of Old Fort Jackson and where the 15 cannons were found.
Several cannons were pulled up several years ago when the wreckage of the CSS Georgia was removed by the Corps as part of the harbour deepening. Archaeologists involved in that project are now helping on the current one.
Robert Neyland, head of the underwater archaeology branch at the Naval History and Heritage Command, last year said it’s possible the Civil War ironclad carried older guns and more research was needed. It’s possible some of the cannons were used at Fort Jackson, which was constructed in the early 1800s, or elsewhere and discarded.
“You have to do the detective work to solve the mystery,” Neyland said at the time.
He could not be reached for comment Tuesday, but the NHHC said it received a report on the cannons from the Army Corps of Engineers “and looks forward to reviewing the data.”
Farmer says officials will identify a few of the artillery pieces — which are being kept in protective troughs — for conservation and, ideally, put them on exhibit in Savannah. The Corps, meanwhile, is in the final stages of deepening the harbour from 42 feet to 47 feet to make sure supertankers have ample room to navigate.
Besides the cannons, archaeologists using sonar have found anchors and bar shot, a type of munition designed to destroy ship rigging. They were commonly used during the Revolutionary War. Divers also studied “cribs” — underwater obstructions placed in the river to ward off Union ships during the Civil War. The Army Corps of Engineers’ Savannah office will provide more details to the media next week. An expert will provide an analysis of what has been learned. “They are still actively performing archival research and working with other experts on this, so they will have more information to share,” Farmer said.
The public will have a chance to learn more at 7 p.m. ET on February 17 during a free program at the Savannah History Museum. Face masks are required.
Swedish orienteering enthusiast finds Bronze Age treasure trove
A Swedish orienteering enthusiast working on a map stumbled across a stash of some 50 Bronze Age relics dating back over 2,500 years, authorities said.
Mainly consisting of ancient jewellery, the find outside the small town of Alingsas in western Sweden represents one of “the most spectacular and largest cache finds” from the Bronze Age ever in the Nordic country, the County Administrative Board said in a statement.
Among the relics, believed to be from the period between 750 and 500 BC, are some “very well preserved necklaces, chains and needles” made out of bronze.
Some of the bronze Age treasures discovered near Alingsas
The objects were lying out in the open in front of some boulders out in the forest.
“Presumably animals have dug them out of a crevice between the boulders, where you can assume that they had been lying before,” the government agency said.
Tomas Karlsson, the cartographer who made the discovery when he was out updating a map, at first thought, it was just junk.
“It looked like metal garbage. Is that a lamp lying here, I thought at first,” Karlsson told the Dagens Nyheter newspaper.
He told the paper he then hunched over and saw a spiral and a necklace.
“But it all looked so new. I thought they were fake,” he continued.
He reported the find to local authorities who sent out a team of archaeologists to examine the site.
“Most of the finds are made up of bronze items that can be associated with women of high status from the Bronze Age,” Johan Ling, professor of archaeology at the University of Gothenburg, said in the statement.
“They have been used to adorn different body parts, such as necklaces, bracelets and ankle bracelets, but there were also large needles and eyelets used to decorate and hold up different pieces of clothing, probably made of wool,” Ling added.
Authorities in Israel have announced the discovery of an ancient human settlement in Jerusalem which is thousands of years old. The historic site was found while authorities were doing roadwork.
Archaeologists in Jerusalem have uncovered an ancient settlement that dates back as far as 7,000 years. They are calling it the oldest discovery of its kind in the area.
“This is the first time we found the architecture of this kind in Jerusalem itself,” said Ronit Lupu, director of excavations for Israel’s Antiquities Authority. “We are talking about an established society, very well organized, with the settlement, with cemeteries.”
This handout photo released by the Israel Antiquities Authority on Wednesday, Feb. 15, 2016, shows work on uncovering an ancient settlement in Jerusalem. Israeli archaeologists have discovered a 7,000-year-old settlement in northern Jerusalem in what they say is the oldest discovery of its kind in the area.
The excavation exposed two houses with well-preserved remains and floors containing pottery vessels, flint tools and a basalt bowl.
Lupu said these items are representative of the early Chalcolithic period, which began around 5,000 BC.
This handout photo released by the Israel Antiquities Authority on Wednesday, Feb. 15, 2016, shows a basalt bowl found at a site of an ancient settlement in Jerusalem. Israeli archaeologists have discovered a 7,000-year-old settlement in northern Jerusalem in what they say is the oldest discovery of its kind in the area.
This handout photo released by the Israel Antiquities Authority on Wednesday, Feb. 15, 2016, shows polished flint axe and blades, and a gemstone bead found at a site of an ancient settlement in Jerusalem. Israeli archaeologists have discovered a 7,000-year-old settlement in northern Jerusalem in what they say is the oldest discovery of its kind in the area.
In the Chalcolithic period, humans were “still using stone tools, but began to create high-level ceramics and for the first time, copper tools as well,” said Lupu.
Small settlements from the period have been discovered in parts of Israel and Jordan, but only a few remnants had previously been unearthed in Jerusalem.
“Now in the new dig we found remnants of a village, an established village,” said Amnon Barzilai, the head of the authority’s prehistory branch.
“Now we can know that even in the periods prior to the First and Second Temples, even in the Chalcolithic period, it was an inhabited area,” he said.
The Chalcolithic period is considered by some to be a bridge between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age. A lack of archaeological evidence of this period in Jerusalem had long puzzled many researchers.
For Lupu, the discovery is closure to a long quest for this type of settlement in Jerusalem.
“For years in Jerusalem we had a feeling – we knew it was there somewhere but never found it. But here we found it,” she said.
The site was discovered while authorities were doing roadwork in the east Jerusalem neighbourhood of Shuafat, and there are no current plans to expand the 50 square meters (500 square foot) dig site.
New evidence shows humans moved to Europe 10,000 years earlier than thought
Modern humans arrived in western Europe about 10,000 years earlier than previously thought. A human tooth found in southern France suggests an early attempt by our species to colonise the continent that lasted for over a thousand years before the Neanderthals re-established themselves. A single tooth found in France’s Rhône Valley shows that modern humans had arrived in western Europe about 54,000 years ago.
Sites along the Rhône valley show evidence of advanced Neronian tools, unlike anything that was made immediately before or after it.
A new paper involving a Museum scientist suggests it belongs to Homo sapiens, and that the species arrived in western Europe significantly earlier than previously known. However, researchers believe they didn’t stay long, abandoning the site. After a gap, the Neanderthals returned, before giving way to modern humans again around 45,000 years ago.
Prof Chris Stringer, a Research Leader in human evolution at the Museum and co-author on the paper, says, ‘This finding demonstrates there is even more complexity for the arrival of modern humans in Europe than previously known.
‘These early modern humans probably dispersed around the Mediterranean and went up the Rhône Valley, where they may have lived for more than a thousand years before the Neanderthals eventually returned to these cave sites.
On opposite sides of the Mediterranean, similar stone points were made by Homo sapiens around the same time.
‘It really suggests that modern humans tried to establish themselves in Europe again and again before they eventually succeeded.’
The paper, by an international team of researchers, was published in the journal Science Advances.
First Africa, then the world
The history of modern humans and their close relatives is a complex one, with many disagreements and debates over the exact timing of key events. It’s generally agreed that hominin species evolved from a common ancestor with chimpanzees around seven million years ago, and gave rise to the australopithecines which were among the first of our ancestors who could walk upright. Subsequently, Homo erectus emerged with similar body proportions to modern humans and was the first human species known to have spread beyond Africa.
Following a period of development that is still subject to the intense ongoing debate, our species, Homo sapiens, diverged from the lineage of the Neanderthals, Homo neanderthalensis, around 600,000 years ago. Evolving in Africa, Homo sapiens attempted to spread to new lands on multiple occasions. However, the Neanderthals, who lived across Europe and Asia, were entrenched in their home as Chris explains.
‘We’ve got what seems to be a Homo sapiens fossil in Greece at Apidima Cave dated at around 210,000 years ago,’ he says. ‘However, that is a really early incursion that seemingly didn’t go any further and there’s no archaeology with it to suggest how these people were behaving at that time.
‘At the same site about 40,000 years later, we find a Neanderthal fossil. This suggests that our species appeared here at least briefly, but that Neanderthals then returned later.’
While modern humans continued to disperse into Asia, other groups went west as they attempted to enter Europe over thousands of years. While their migration was initially thought to have occurred quite late, new finds such as modern human fossils from Czechia and Bulgaria and groups of artefacts known as the Initial Upper Palaeolithic pushed this date back to around 45,000 years ago.
However, over in France, there were another group of artefacts that didn’t seem to fit.
‘There’s a series of sites in the Rhône Valley in France where there’s a strange stone tool industry called the Neronian,’ Chris says. ‘It exists for just a short time between two distinct periods of Neanderthal Mousterian tools.
‘Neronian tools have what seem to be little projectile point heads – either tiny spearpoint heads or even more intriguingly they could be arrowheads. These are really distinctive. There’s nothing else like them in Europe at this time.’
These Neronian points have no equivalent technology among the Neanderthal groups that lived before and after the arrival of the first modern humans in Grotte Mandarin.
While similar tools had been found in Africa and the Middle East, there wasn’t enough evidence to suggest conclusively this was anything other than a unique Neanderthal group. However, one site in the Rhône Valley, known as Grotte Mandarin, contained more concrete evidence of who made these tools as they were found alongside nine teeth.
A human tooth was found in the Neronian layer at Grotte Mandrin.
Cultural and anthropological evidence in Grotte Mandrin shows the arrival of Homo sapiens in the heart of Neanderthal territories.
The first of many?
These teeth were scattered amongst the different layers, representing at least seven different humans. As DNA couldn’t be extracted from them, the shape of each tooth was compared to those of modern humans and Neanderthals to try and assess their species. The researchers found that the single tooth from the Neronian layer was set apart from the rest, which all looked, Neanderthal. It showed characteristics that were instead like those of modern humans. In addition, the layer it was found in dated to between 56,800 to 51,700 years ago.
While a child’s tooth can show a great deal of variation compared to that of an adult, Chris is confident it provides the oldest evidence of Homo sapiens in this area.
‘We’ve only got a single tooth at the moment, and it’s a shame we don’t know more about these people,’ Chris says. ‘But together with the completely distinct Neronian industry, it provides a persuasive scenario for modern humans in western Europe at this surprisingly early time.’
The archaeological evidence of the site suggests that modern humans could have taken over from Neanderthals in the area in as little as one year, perhaps aided by their Neronian tools. Several other sites in the area also have these tools, which are found for a short period of time.
While it’s likely that modern humans and Neanderthals came in contact during this time, there’s currently no contemporaneous genetic evidence that they did. It is known from later evidence that the species bred together, with most people living today have inherited around 2% of their genome from Neanderthals. As for the French sites, the full story remains to be uncovered. How modern humans came so suddenly, and why they disappeared just as rapidly, is still unknown. However, the site offers clues that may allow us to discover the answers.
‘To get to the Rhône Valley, we assume there will be sites along the northern Mediterranean coast,’ Chris says. ‘If this really is a dispersal, then we could be looking for sites in Italy, in Greece, in Turkey, and back to Syria and Lebanon even. There are also some other mysterious industries in central Europe such as the Bohunician. There’s speculation that may have been made by early modern humans as well because it’s nothing like anything the Neanderthals were made before or after.’
Though the Neanderthals subsequently returned to Grotte Mandrin, this came amid the beginning of the end for the species. While Homo sapiens would continue to disperse across the globe, Homo neanderthalensis became less common and diverse, before vanishing forever some 40,000 years ago.
Archaeologists Identify Mummified Legs as Queen Nefertari’s
A team of international archaeologists believe a pair of mummified legs on display in an Italian museum may belong to Egyptian Queen Nefertari — the favourite wife of the pharaoh Ramses II.
The team, which included Dr Stephen Buckley and Professor Joann Fletcher from the University of York’s Department of Archaeology, used radiocarbon dating, anthropology, palaeopathology, genetics and chemical analysis to identify the remains.
They conclude that “the most likely scenario is that the mummified knees truly belong to Queen Nefertari.”
Queen Nefertari’s knees.
As the favourite wife of the pharaoh Ramses II, Nefertari was provided with a beautifully decorated tomb in the Valley of the Queens to which Professor Fletcher was recently given access.
Although plundered in ancient times, the tomb, first excavated by Italian archaeologists in 1904, still contained objects which were sent to the Egyptian Museum in Turin.
This included a pair of mummified legs which could have been part of a later interment as was often the case in other tombs in the region.
But as the legs had never been scientifically investigated, it was decided to undertake the recent study to find out if the legs could actually represent all that remained of one of Egypt’s most legendary queens.
The study, published in the journal Plos One, revealed that the legs are those of an adult woman of about 40 years of age.
Dr Buckley’s chemical analysis also established that the materials used to embalm the legs are consistent with 13th Century BC mummification traditions, which when taken in conjunction with the findings of the other specialists involved, led to the identification.
Professor Fletcher said: “This has been the most exciting project to be part of, and a great privilege to be working alongside some of the world’s leading experts in this area.
“Both Stephen and myself have a long history studying Egypt’s royal mummies, and the evidence we’ve been able to gather about Nefertari’s remains not only complements the research we’ve been doing on the queen and her tomb but really does allow us to add another piece to the jigsaw of what is actually known about Egyptian mummification.”
