Category Archives: AFRICA

AFRICA, WORLD

New Thoughts on Africa’s Bantu Expansion

New Thoughts on Africa’s Bantu Expansion

The study used novel computational approaches and linguistic data from more than 400 Bantu languages to reconstruct the historic migration routes. The project was a collaboration between scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, and researchers at the University of Auckland in New Zealand.

New Thoughts on Africa’s Bantu Expansion
Bantu men and women working the fields near Kismayo in Somalia.

The Bantu Expansion transformed sub-Saharan Africa’s linguistic, economic, and cultural composition. Today, more than 240 million people speak one of the more than 500 Bantu languages. It is generally accepted that the ancestors of current Bantu speakers lived around 5,000 to 6,000 years before present in a region by the current border of Nigeria and Cameroon. However, until recently, it was not known how and when they succeeded in crossing southward through or around the dense Central African Rainforest to finally settle in their current locations, covering about half of the African continent.

In their current study, researchers analyzed linguistic data from more than 400 Bantu and other closely related languages. From this data, using novel methods, they built a dated language family tree and reconstructed the geographic spread of Bantu speakers.

In contrast to previous claims, the southwards expansion happened approximately 4,000 years ago – a long time before the savanna corridor through the dense rainforest opened. It had previously been thought that agriculturalist populations, such as the early Bantu speakers, would not have been able to maintain their agricultural traditions in a dense rainforest environment.

Linguistic data tells us a story of migrations

Bantu migrations were reconstructed from linguistic data. The homeland is marked with a star, the main nodes are numbered (1-3), and the origins of the main clades (0-23) are marked with their respective colours.

The authors used a novel method, borrowed from genetics, to account for possible geographic biases in the reconstruction: “It turns out that there are actually more than 600 Bantu and other related documented languages, but there is not enough lexical data available for about one-third of them.

Therefore, we implemented a so-called sequence-free sampling – a way to overcome this bias and build a more robust geographic reconstruction, including all documented Bantu languages”, comments Ezequiel Koile, lead author of this research. “It’s really exciting to be able to use these methods to provide the most comprehensive analysis of the Bantu languages to date. These methods give us real power to resolve these long-standing debates about major human population expansions”, adds Simon Greenhill, co-author of the study.

Besides the sequence-free sampling approach, an important methodological improvement in the reconstruction of past migration routes was the use of a “break-away” model.

“According to this model, at every split in the language tree, one of the populations stays in the same place, while the other migrates. This seems more realistic than other diffusion-based methods, where both populations are forced to migrate,” explains Remco Bouckaert, developer of this geographic model.

Agriculturalists can adapt to a dense rainforest

It was previously thought that for a human group characterized by its agricultural practices, such as the early Bantu populations, it would have been hard, if not impossible, to cross the Central African rainforest.

“The idea was that the dense rainforest made it very difficult to transport and maintain the crops and cattle that characterized the Bantu expansion. While changes in the type of subsistence are attested in history, they tend to be relatively rare,” comments Damián Blasi, one of the article’s co-authors.

This is why it had generally been accepted that these populations migrated through the Sangha River Interval – a savanna corridor that opened as a north-south strip along the rainforest around 2,500 years ago – and not directly through the rainforest. This study’s findings fit with recent anthropological results demonstrating the adaptability of humans to tropical forests.

“Our results highlight the importance of niche construction in human population expansions. Of course ecology matters, but it isn’t destiny,” concludes Russell Gray, senior author of the publication.

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

Temple Dedicated to the Sun God Unearthed in Egypt

Temple Dedicated to the Sun God Unearthed in Egypt

Part of the uncovered sun temple is seen in this image.

Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of a 4,500-year-old temple dedicated to the Egyptian sun god Ra at the site of Abu Ghurab, about 12 miles (20 kilometres) south of Cairo. 

The temple was built sometime during ancient Egypt’s fifth dynasty (circa 2465 B.C. to 2323 B.C.) — a “period in which the cult of the sun reached its apex with the construction of a new type of monument specifically devoted to the sun god, commonly known as ‘Sun Temple,'” said Massimiliano Nuzzolo, co-director of the archaeological dig and a researcher at the Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. He co-directs it with Rosanna Pirelli of the University of Naples “L’Orientale” in Italy. 

The sun cult was a powerful cult in ancient Egyptian religion. In later times, Ra merged with Amun — the chief god of Thebes (Luxor) — to form Amun-Ra who was regarded, at least by some Egyptians, as being the most powerful of the Egyptian gods.

He was worshipped until around 1,500 years ago when Egyptian polytheism became extinct.

Here we see the excavated Sun Temple from ancient Egypt.

The newly uncovered sun temple was made from mud bricks and measured at least 197 feet long and 66 feet wide (60 meters by 20 m). It contained an L-shaped entrance portico, a courtyard, storage rooms and rooms that may have been used for cultic purposes, Nuzzolo told Live Science in an email.

“The walls of this building were all plastered in black and white and often also show traces of painting in red and blue,” Nuzzolo said.

The entrance portico was partially made of white limestone and had two limestone columns. 

The temple was ritually demolished, possibly before it was even finished, so a new sun temple could be made from stone at the site for a pharaoh named Niuserre (reign circa. 2420 B.C. to 2389 B.C.). Niuserre “reused part of the structure as a platform or sub-foundation for his new temple,” Nuzzolo said.

The archaeologists found two deposits of artefacts, one of which has dozens of intact beer jars and a few finely made and red-slipped vessels, while the other contains seal impressions, including the seals of pharaohs who ruled during the fifth and sixth dynasties.

One of the earliest seals belongs to Shepseskare, an “enigmatic” pharaoh who ruled Egypt before Niuserre, Nuzzolo said.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art(opens in new tab) in New York City lists Shepseskare as reigning from circa 2438 B.C to 2431 B.C., and Raneferef (also known as Neferefre) ruling from circa 2431 B.C. to 2420 B.C.

These artifacts were found in the same deposit and include jars used to store beer.
This artefact contains the seal of Shepseskare, a pharaoh who ruled Egypt in the fifth dynasty.

Archaeologists aren’t sure which pharaoh began construction of the mud brick sun temple, but it was likely either Shepseskare or Raneferef, Nuzzolo said. 

Continue reading Temple Dedicated to the Sun God Unearthed in Egypt →
AFRICA, WORLD

Neolithic Watermelons May Have Been Valued for Their Seeds

Neolithic Watermelons May Have Been Valued for Their Seeds

The oldest known seeds from a watermelon relative, dating back 6,000 years to the Neolithic period, were found during an archaeological dig in Libya.

An investigation of these seeds led by biologist Susanne S. Renner at Washington University in St. Louis reveals some surprises about how our ancestors used a predecessor of today’s watermelon.

These results and two new genomes of ancient seeds are published in the journal Molecular Biology and Evolution.

Renner

Scientists generally agree that watermelons came from Africa, but exactly where and when watermelons with red, sweet flesh were first domesticated from their wild form is debatable.

The most recent data point to watermelon getting its start in the Nile valley, which is consistent with archaeological evidence.

However, the very old seeds discovered at Uan Muhuggiag, a rock shelter in what is now the Sahara Desert in Libya, seemed at odds with this explanation. There was no way to be certain of their identity prior to this investigation.

“The oldest seeds of watermelons cannot be securely identified as either belonging to a sweet-pulped domesticated form, or instead to one of the bitter-pulped wild forms,” said Renner, an honorary professor of biology in Arts & Sciences. “The seeds of the seven species of Citrullus are basically undistinguishable.”

“Now, having a chromosome-level genome, we can be sure that Neolithic Libyans were using a bitter-fleshed watermelon,” she said. “We suspect they used the fruits to get at the (numerous!) seeds, which even today are eaten air-dried or roasted or also boiled in soups or stews.”

Co-senior author Guillaume Chomicki, a National Environmental Research Council fellow at the University of Sheffield in the United Kingdom, collected dozens of samples of watermelon and watermelon relatives from herbarium specimens in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, as part of the quest to trace the path of watermelon’s domestication.

He and Renner also obtained much older samples: the 6,000-year-old Libyan seeds and another set of 3,300-year-old Sudanese seeds.

Neolithic Watermelons May Have Been Valued for Their Seeds
An unexpected new insight from this study is that Citrullus appears to have initially been collected or cultivated for its seeds, not its sweet flesh, consistent with seed damage patterns induced by human teeth in the oldest Libyan material.

“These seeds were a riddle because they were thought to be the oldest true watermelon seeds,” Chomicki said. “Yet they were from Libya, which was never thought to be the cradle of watermelon domestication.”

The scientists generated genome sequences from the seeds from Libya and Sudan and from the herbarium collections and analyzed these data together with resequenced genomes from important germplasm collections.

They discovered that the oldest seeds came from a plant known as an egusi melon, a watermelon relative that is currently restricted to western Africa.

“Both plant ‘fossils’ were C-14 dated and, as far as we know, are among the oldest plant genomes ever obtained,” Renner said.

“An unexpected new insight is that Citrullus appears to have initially been collected or cultivated for its seeds, not its sweet flesh, consistent with seed damage patterns induced by human teeth in the oldest Libyan material,” Chomicki said.

“This study documents the use of the seeds (rather than the fruit) of a watermelon relative more than 6,000 years ago, prior to the domestication of the watermelon.”

“Watermelons — the wild species, as well as the domesticated form — have very numerous seeds that are tasty and oil-rich,” Renner said.

“Different from the pulp, the seeds never contain the extremely bitter cucurbitacin chemical. Snacking on those easily available nutritious seeds may have been a good thing.”

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

The Legendary Emerald Tablet and its Secrets of the Universe

The Legendary Emerald Tablet and its Secrets of the Universe

The origins of Western alchemy can be traced back to Hellenistic Egypt, in particular to the city of Alexandria. One of the most important characters in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (Hermes the Thrice-Great). The name of this figure is derived from the Egyptian god of wisdom, Thoth, and his Greek counterpart, Hermes.

The Hermetica, which is said to be written by Hermes Trismegistus, is generally regarded as the basis of Western alchemical philosophy and practice. In addition, Hermes Trismegistus is also believed to be the author of the Emerald Tablet.

Legends of the Emerald Tablet

The Emerald Tablet is said to be a tablet of emerald or green stone inscribed with the secrets of the universe. The source of the original Emerald Tablet is unclear; hence it is surrounded by legends.

The most common story claims that the tablet was found in a caved tomb under the statue of Hermes in Tyana, clutched in the hands of the corpse of Hermes Trismegistus himself.

Hermes Trismegistus.

And the creator of the Emerald Tablet has been provided in myth as the Egyptian god Thoth, who Armando Mei writes “divided his knowledge into 42 plates of emerald, codifying the great scientific principles ruling the Universe.

The legend tells that after the gods’ fall, the Hermetic tablets were cleverly hidden so that no human being might find them. Only Thoth, on his return to that dimension, was able to recover the mysterious book.

Thoth

Another legend suggests that it was the third son of Adam and Eve, Seth, who originally wrote it. Others believed that the tablet was once held within the Ark of the Covenant. Some even claim that the original source of the Emerald Tablet is none other than the fabled city of Atlantis.

Spreading Stories of the Emerald Tablet

While various claims have been made regarding the origins of the Emerald Tablet, as yet no verifiable evidence has been found to support them.

The oldest documentable source of the Emerald Tablet’s text is the Kitab sirr al-haliqi (Book of the Secret of Creation and the Art of Nature), which was itself a composite of earlier works.

This was an Arabic work written in the 8th century AD and attributed to ‘Balinas’ or Pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana. It is Balinas who provides us with the story of how he discovered the Emerald Tablet in the caved tomb. Based on this Arabic work, some believe that the Emerald Tablet was also an Arabic text and written between the 6th and 8th centuries AD, rather than a piece of work from Antiquity, as many have claimed.

While Balinas claimed that the Emerald Tablet was written originally in Greek, the original document that he purportedly possessed no longer exists, if indeed it existed at all. Some say the text burned up in the Library of Alexandria. Nevertheless, Balinas’ version of the text itself quickly became well-known and has been translated by various people over the centuries.

For instance, an early version of the Emerald Tablet also appeared in a work called the Kitab Ustuqus al-Uss al-Thani (Second Book of the Elements of the Foundation), which is attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan. It would, however, take several more centuries before the text was accessible to Europeans. In the 12th century AD, the Emerald Tablet was translated into Latin by Hugo von Santalla.

A reconstruction of what the Emerald Tablet is believed to have looked like.

What’s Written on the Emerald Tablet?

The Emerald Tablet would become one of the pillars of Western alchemy. It was a highly influential text in medieval and Renaissance alchemy, and probably still is today. In addition to translations of the Emerald Tablet, numerous commentaries have also been written regarding its contents.

For instance, a translation by Isaac Newton was discovered among his alchemical papers. This translation is currently being held in King’s College Library in Cambridge University. Other notable researchers of the Emerald Tablet include Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, John Dee, and Aleister Crowley. And today knowledge of the legendary Emerald Tablet (at least one interpretation of it ) is reaching new audiences with its presence in the surreal German-language series Dark.

An imaginative 17th-century depiction of the Emerald Tablet from the work of Heinrich Khunrath, 1606.

The interpretation of the Emerald Text is not a straightforward matter, as it is after all a piece of esoteric text. One interpretation, for instance, suggests that the text describes seven stages of alchemical transformation – calcination, dissolution, separation, conjunction, fermentation, distillation and coagulation. Yet, despite the various interpretations available, it seems that none of their authors claims to possess knowledge of the whole truth. Furthermore, readers are encouraged to read the text and try to interpret and find the hidden truths themselves.

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

2,700-year-old ancient Egyptian stroke victim discovered

2,700-year-old ancient Egyptian stroke victim discovered

The recent medical inspection of the mummy in Egyptian led to a novel discovery believed to be one of, if not the earliest examples of a stroke in an Egyptian mummy.

2,700-year-old ancient Egyptian stroke victim discovered
A 2,300-year-old mummy is displayed after it was found by the Sakkara pyramids south of Cairo, May 3, 2005.

Upon examination, a research team from the Spanish National Program for Scientific Research, Technology and Innovation concluded that the mummy,  a woman between 25 and 40 years of age who died about 2,700 years ago, suffered a right cerebral stroke.

The mummy was studied both macroscopically and radiographically.

The findings, published last month in World Neurosurgery, explain that the position of the female mummy’s shoulders, head, flexed arm and inward turning of the left foot indicate she endured a stroke on the right side of her brain.

The researchers also note that a stick or a crutch remained with her in the mummification process, which they speculate she used in life following the stroke.

The earliest example of a stroke 

The researchers believe the woman lived with the aftermath of the stroke for several years. Strokes, which occur when blood supply to the brain is disrupted, are the second highest leading cause of death and disability globally.

The typical stroke patient today is at least 60 years old, decades older than the mummy is believed to have been.

Stroke (illustrative)

Ancient mummies can advance modern medicine

In another study this month that analyzed the remains of a 2,000-year-old Egyptian mummy and found that she may have suffered from nasopharyngeal cancer, Polish researchers said that investigating mummy illnesses can significantly contribute to modern medicine.

AFRICA, SOUTH AFRICA, WORLD

Early Human Evolution: Hominin Fossils in “Cradle of Humankind” May Be a Million Years Older Than Thought

Early Human Evolution: Hominin Fossils in “Cradle of Humankind” May Be a Million Years Older Than Thought

Early Human Evolution: Hominin Fossils in “Cradle of Humankind” May Be a Million Years Older Than Thought
Four different Australopithecus crania were found in the Sterkfontein caves, South Africa. The Sterkfontein cave fill containing this and other Australopithecus fossils was dated to 3.4 to 3.6 million years ago, far older than previously thought. The new date overturns the long-held concept that South African Australopithecus is a younger offshoot of East African Australopithecus afarensis. Credit: Jason Heaton and Ronald Clarke, in cooperation with the Ditsong Museum of Natural History

The Famous Sterkfontein Caves deposit is 1 million years older than previously thought.

New dates for the Australopithecus-bearing Sterkfontein Cave deposit place South African hominin fossils at the centre of global paleo research.

Nearly four million years of hominin and environmental evolution are revealed by fossils found at the Sterkfontein Caves in South Africa. Research began at the site in 1936 when Robert Broom discovered the first adult hominin of the genus Australopithecus.

Since then it has become famous for the hundreds of Australopithecus fossils yielded from excavations of ancient cave infills, including iconic specimens such as the Little Foot skeleton and the cranium known as Mrs. Ples.

Ancient cave infill called ‘Member 4’ is where the majority of Sterkfontein’s wealth of Australopithecus fossils have been excavated from. In fact, it is the richest deposit of Australopithecus fossils in the world.

Over the last 56 years of University of the Witwatersrand-led research at Sterkfontein, the age of Member 4 at Sterkfontein has remained contested. Age estimates have ranged from as young as about 2 million years ago, younger than the appearance of our genus Homo, back to about 3 million years.

New research presented in a paper published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) re-evaluates the age of Australopithecus from Member 4 at Sterkfontein together with the Jacovec Cavern, which contains a few additional hominin fossils in a deeper chamber in the cave.

“The new ages range from 3.4-3.6 million years for Member 4, indicating that the Sterkfontein hominins were contemporaries of other early Australopithecus species, like Australopithecus afarensis, in east Africa,” says Professor Dominic Stratford, director of research at the caves, and one of the authors on the paper.

The new ages are based on the radioactive decay of the rare isotopes aluminium-26 and beryllium-10 in the mineral quartz.

“These radioactive isotopes, known as cosmogenic nuclides, are produced by high-energy cosmic ray reactions near the ground surface, and their radioactive decay dates when the rocks were buried in the cave when they fell in the entrance together with the fossils,” says Professor Darryl Granger of Purdue University in the United States and lead author on the paper.

Previous dating of Member 4 has been based on dating calcite flowstone deposits found within the cave fill, but careful observations show that the flowstone is actually younger than the cave fill and so it underestimates the age of the fossils.

“This re-assessment of the age of Sterkfontein Member 4 Australopithecus fossils has important implications for the role of South Africa on the hominin evolution stage. Younger hominins, including Paranthropus and our genus Homoappear between about 2.8 and 2 million years ago.

Based on previously suggested dates, the South African Australopithecus species were too young to be their ancestors, so it has been considered more likely that Homo and Paranthropus evolved in East Africa,” says Stratford.

The new dates show that Australopithecus existed at Sterkfontein almost a million years prior to the appearance of Paranthropus and Homo, providing more time for them to evolve here, in the Cradle of Humankind, and placing the hominins from this site front and centre in the history early human evolution.

“This important new dating work pushes the age of some of the most interesting fossils in human evolution research, and one of South Africa’s most iconic fossils, Mrs. Ples, back a million years to a time when, in east Africa, we find other iconic early hominins like Lucy,” says Stratford.

“The redating of the Australopithecus-bearing infills at the Sterkfontein Caves will undoubtedly re-ignite the debate over the diverse characteristics of Australopithecus at Sterkfontein, and whether there could have been South African ancestors to later hominins,” says Granger.

For more on this research, read Fossils in the “Cradle of Humankind” May Be More Than a Million Years Older Than Thought.

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

Researchers Have Just Reconstructed a 2,300-Year-Old Egyptian Mummy’s Face

Researchers Have Just Reconstructed a 2,300-Year-Old Egyptian Mummy’s Face

Australian researchers have reconstructed the face of an ancient Egyptian mummy, using a 3D printer to create a replica skull and forensic sculpting techniques to bring it to life.

While the sculpture is awesome in its own right and allows us to get a glimpse into an ancient culture, the team says the reconstruction will also teach students about diagnosing pathologies in former populations.

“The idea of the project is to take this relic and, in a sense, bring her back to life by using all the new technology,” said team member Varsha Pilbrow, from the University of Melbourne.

“This way she can become much more than a fascinating object to be put on display. Through her, students will be able to learn how to diagnose pathology marked on our anatomy, and learn how whole population groups can be affected by the environments in which they live.”

The funny thing is that the mummy – which is just a wrapped head with no body – was found by accident inside the university’s collections area where a curator was performing an audit.

The team suspects the head might have been brought to the university by Frederic Wood Jones, an archaeologist turned anatomy professor, who taught there in the early 1900s.

“Her face is kept upright because it is more respectful that way,” said museum curator Ryan Jefferies. “She was once a living person, just like all the human specimens we have preserved here, and we can’t forget that.”

The decision to reconstruct the face was prompted when Jefferies grew concerned that the skull was starting to rot from the inside. This is a unique problem, because the team can’t unwrap the mummy to check if everything is okay, and risk further damaging the specimen.

Instead, they used a CT scan to see what was going on inside. “The CT scan opened up a whole lot of questions and avenues of enquiry and we realised it was a great forensic and teaching opportunity in collaborative research,” Jefferies said.

To help reconstruct the face based on what they now knew of the skull, the researchers called in a team of forensic experts from Monash University.

Based on the CT scans of the skull, the Monash team estimated that the head once belonged to a woman – who the team has named Meritamun – who likely lived around 300 BC.

There’s still a lot to learn about the exact timeframe through radiocarbon dating, though, which will hopefully get underway soon.

With the CT scans, imaging specialist Gavan Mitchell was able to use a 3D printer to create an exact replica of the skull:

With that, the team turned the skull over to Jennifer Mann, a forensic sculptor, who painstakingly reconstructed the mummy’s face using clay and all of the data gathered by the forensic team.

“It is incredible that her skull is in such good condition after all this time, and the model that Gavan produced was beautiful in its details,” Mann said. “It is really poignant work and extremely important for finally identifying these people who would otherwise have remained unknown.”

The end result was a completely reconstructed face that offers a unique way to see an ancient Egyptian:

The team’s work has yet to be published in a peer-reviewed journal, so the technique awaits proper scrutiny, though publication will likely be forthcoming after more analysis is done on the head using radiocarbon dating techniques.

Check out the video below to see the reconstruction in action:

AFRICA, EGYPT, WORLD

Computer Scans Reveal King Tut’s Appearance And New Possible Cause Of Death

Computer Scans Reveal King Tut’s Appearance And New Possible Cause Of Death

The name “King Tut” gives birth to images of powerful royal families of Egypt, of course, it does. Tutankhamun was the last great king of his lineage before the military rule took over the land, and one of the youngest rulers at that. However, the way we visualize this young king is quite different from the way he really looked.

It has also been found that his cause of death is incorrect as well.

So, who was “King Tut”? How did this young king meet his demise? The truth may surprise you!

Computer Scans Reveal King Tut’s Appearance And New Possible Cause Of Death

The truth

Tutankhamun took the throne at the age of 9 years old. This child-man ruled Egypt until the age of 19, receiving respect above all in the land.

The popular consensus about his death, says that King Tut was killed in a chariot accident while riding out with his officials. This sounds like a normal incident for that day and age, but unfortunately, it is not true.

The truth is, Tutankhamun had a club foot. Within his tomb, there were countless walking sticks and even a pair of orthopaedic sandals, it is true!

Albert Zink, head of the Institute of Mummies and Icemen in Italy, had a strong opinion on this theory. He believed there was no way a child king could have stood upon that chariot and driven his horses.

It is also said that the leg on the same side had been broken previously as well. It would have been terribly uncomfortable, if not impossible, for Tutankhamun to be upon that chariot at all. It is quite apparent that death took him in some other way.

Zink told this opinion to the U.K. daily, the Independent, and was followed by other researchers who felt the same way.

“Apparently, King Tut had Koehler’s disease, ‘Death of the bones’, and Malaria”, said Ashraf Selim, an Egyptian radiologist. 

These are probably the culprits that took the young king from the throne.

More tests

The club foot was found by virtual autopsy. This same procedure of using over 2000 computerized tomography scans of the king’s face and body, also discovered that Tutankhamun wasn’t all that attractive either.

According to the evidence, King Tut had a pronounced overbite and lips like a woman. Wow! It seems that we were way off in our idea of Egyptian royalty. It seems that they were no less flawed than we are today.

One more fact

To top it off, Tutankhamun’s parents were siblings. Although this may not have been frowned upon at that time, it did contribute to the young king’s birth defects and obvious shortcomings.

Because his parents were siblings, “King Tut” was born with two doses of the royal lineage of flaws. Yes, the blood was pure, but the result was a young and weakening child to rule the land.

The rule of Tutankhamun ended in the 18th dynasty and gave way to military rule. Although there have been many facts discovered about this ruler, it is clear that his royal lineage was the greatest among Egypt’s royal families throughout history, despite its shortcomings.