NORTH AMERICA, U.S.A, WORLD

Ancient Native American burial site blasted for Trump border wall construction

Ancient Native American burial site blasted for Trump border wall construction

It was alleged that Sacred Native American burial sites in a national monument were blown up to create President Trump’s border wall. Construction teams in southern Arizona began to blast hills at the National Monument of the Organ Pipe Cactus to clear way to the current border wall project.

Trump’s border wall under construction at Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument in southern Arizona. The 43-mile project goes through the national monument and tribal land

Crews are bulldozing through Monument Hill to create a 30-foot steel wall along the US-Mexico border without consulting the Native American community whose ancestral land lies on part of the wall’s path, it is claimed.

‘Controlled blasting’ has been carried out for the construction of the wall which is part of a 43-mile project on national monument land about 115 miles west of Tucson, officials said.

A congressman whose district includes the reservation has said the Department of Homeland Security had ‘failed in its legal obligation to consult with the tribes.

Tribal elders told Democratic Rep Raul Grijalva that bodies were buried on the hill after Apache raids, the Arizona Daily Star reported.

Golden poppies bloom at Organ Pipe Cactus Monument, Sonoran Desert, Arizona
Saguaros cactus, killed within the Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument in Arizona by the border wall construction. Bulldozing through Monument Hill has been carried out to construct a 30-foot steel wall along the US-Mexico border

Grijalva, chairman of the House Natural Resources Committee, visited the location ahead of the construction and described the site in a video posted to social media. Monument Hill, where he said explosions are now occurring. 

In a video posted, Grijalva said: ‘Where they were blasting the other day on Monument Hill is the resting place for primarily Apache warriors that had been involved in the battle with the O’odham. 

‘And then the O’odham people in a respectful waylaid them to rest on Monument Hill.  DHS has consistently failed in its legal obligation to consult with the tribes, and this is only the latest example.’

He also sent a letter to the acting head of the Department of Homeland Security, Chad Wolf, to express ‘serious concerns’ about the construction project. Organ Pipe was designated as an International Biosphere Reserve by the United Nations and is part of the national parks system, officials said.

A congressman whose district includes the reservation (pictured) has said the Department of Homeland Security ‘failed in its legal obligation to consult with the tribes’ in the bulldozing through sacred land to build the border wall

‘The construction contractor has begun controlled blasting, in preparation for new border wall system construction, within the Roosevelt Reservation at Monument Mountain,’ Customs and Border Protection said. 

‘The controlled blasting is targeted and will continue intermittently for the rest of the month.’

Environmental advocates, elected officials and Tohono O’odham Nation leaders have raised concerns about the project, including the destruction of saguaros, the use of water from an underground aquifer, the potential impact on migrating animals and the destruction of land consider sacred by some Native Americans. 

The Army Corps of Engineers reported that the Department of Defense awarded $891 million in contracts to Southwest Valley Constructors in May to build the border wall on Organ Pipe and Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge.

The US government plans on replacing barriers through 100 miles of the southern border in California and Arizona, including through a national monument and a wildlife refuge, according to documents and environmental advocates.

Barriers will go up at the monument, a vast park named after the unique cactus breed that decorates it, and Cabeza Prieta, which is largely a designed wilderness home to 275 wildlife species. The government will also build new roads and lighting in those areas. 

The Department of Homeland Security last May again waived environmentally and dozens of other laws to build more barriers along the US-Mexico border.

Environmental advocates who have sued to stop the construction of the wall say this latest plan will be detrimental to the wildlife and habitat in those areas.

ENGLAND, EUROPE, WORLD

Hoard of Gold Tudor Coins Unearthed in England

Hoard of Gold Tudor Coins Unearthed in England

When they found a rare treasure, a buried cache of gold coins dating back to the 1400s, representing English monarchs from Edward IV to Henry VIII, a family in England were weeding their garden.

The hoard — a stash of 63 gold coins and one silver coin — contains money minted over a period of nearly 100 years, from the late 15th to the 16th centuries.

Four of the coins feature Henry VIII and, curiously, one of the initials of three of his wives: Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn and Jane Seymour. 

Hoard of Gold Tudor Coins Unearthed in England
A newfound stash of 63 gold and one silver coin dates from the time of Edward IV to Henry VIII.

Upon finding the cache, the family, in the New Forest district of Hampshire, a county in southeastern England, notified the British Museum, which runs the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS).

This program partners with local people who find historical artefacts in the United Kingdom, so the findings can be documented and studied, the British Museum said in a statement Thursday (Dec. 10). 

The coins were likely buried in about 1540, while King Henry VIII was still alive, but it’s unknown whether this burial spot was like a piggy bank, where someone regularly deposited coins, or whether the hoard was buried all at once, according to the British Museum.

Whoever saved the coins, however, was a person of means: The collection was worth about £24 at the time, the equivalent of $18,600 (£14,000) today, Barrie Cook, a curator of medieval and early modern coins at the British Museum, told The Guardian. That’s much more than the average annual wage during Tudor times. 

In all likelihood, a wealthy merchant or clergy member buried the hoard, John Naylor, a coin expert from the Ashmolean Museum at the University of Oxford, told The Guardian.

“You have this period in the late 1530s and 1540s where you have the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and we do know that some churches did try to hide their wealth, hoping they would be able to keep it in the long-term,” he said.

The newfound coins are “an important hoard,” Naylor added. “You don’t get these big gold hoards very often from this period.”

Among the hoard were coins featuring the initials of Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn and Jane Seymour.

As for the coins themselves, it’s a mystery why the initials of Henry’s wives were present. In 1526, Henry and Thomas Wolsey, an English archbishop, statesman and cardinal of the Catholic Church, redid the monetary system, changing coins’ weights and beginning new denominations, such as the five-shilling gold coin, The Guardian reported. 

“Not only does he change denominations, but he also has this very strange decision of putting his wife’s initials on the coin,” Cook said.

Such a move had no precedent. And given Henry VIII’s many marriages (six in all), the initials changed frequently. But after his third marriage to Jane Seymour, the mother of Edward VI who died shortly after childbirth, Henry discontinued the practice, meaning that his following wives (Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard and Catherine Parr) did not see their initials on English money.

The hoard is just one of over 47,000 artefacts documented by PAS in 2020. Another newfound, notable hoard includes the 50 South African Krugerrand minted during apartheid in the 1970s.

This stash, also found buried in a garden, was unearthed in the town of Milton Keynes, about 50 miles (80 kilometres) northwest of London. Each of the 50 coins weighs 1 oz (28 grams) and is made of solid gold, the museum reported. 

“How they ended up in Milton Keynes and why they were buried are, for the moment, a mystery,” museum officials wrote in the statement. An official in Milton Keynes is trying to find the coins’ original owner or heirs.

EUROPE, GREECE, WORLD

3,000 yr-old Greek city Tenea found by archaeologists

3,000 yr-old Greek city Tenea found by archaeologists

A group of Trojan prisoners founded the town of Tenea after their devastating defeat by the Greek hero Odysseus and an enormous wooden horse in the Trojan War, according to ancient Greek texts and myths.

More than 3,000 years later, near a small village in southern Greece called Chiliomodi, researchers have uncovered archaeological evidence of the city’s existence for the first time.

The search began back in 1984 when the archaeologist Elena Korka uncovered a sarcophagus in the village, which is located in the Peloponnese region, south of Athens. “After I uncovered the sarcophagus, I knew I had to go back for more,” Korka told the New York Times.

Korka, who directs the Office for Supervision of Antiquaries and Private Archaeological Collections in Greece’s Ministry of Culture, returned with a team to the site in 2013 to begin the current excavations.

In September 2018, following an ancient road, the researchers found a graveyard containing the remains of two men, five women and two children, including one woman buried in the same grave with her child.

The tombs were stocked with bone, bronze and gold jewellery, silver and gold coins, vases and other valuable grave items, indicating the wealth of those buried there. But when the archaeologists continued their search north of the cemetery, they stumbled on an even bigger find: the remains of buildings from the ancient city of Tenea itself.

Findings from burials during Hellenistic and Roman times including bones, jewelry and pottery.
Findings from burials during Hellenistic and Roman times including bones, jewelry and pottery.
Ancient Greek city Tenea found by archaeologists
The outline of a housing settlement has been discovered

Inside an area measuring some 672 meters square, the researchers found beams and columns, clay, marble and stone floors and walls, according to a statement released by the Greek cultural ministry announcing the find.

In addition to a number of amphoras (jars) and a collection of more than 200 coins—another indication of the wealth and economic independence of the city—they also uncovered the tombs of two fetuses.

Korka told the Times that the presence of the babies’ tombs helped identify the site as the city itself, as babies were buried in residential areas and not in graveyards.

The ancient Greek historian Pausanias, who lived and wrote in the second century A.D., suggested that the founders of Tenea may have been Trojans who were taken prisoner by Agamemnon, the Mycenaean king.

This occurred in the aftermath of the Trojan War, which—if it actually happened—took place more than 3,000 years ago, in the 13th or 12th century B.C.

Around the 5th century B.C., tales of mythical Greek king Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother, noted that he was raised in Tenea.

Until now, archaeologists had uncovered no evidence of the city’s existence outside of historical texts and myths.

The collection of coins and the graves found at the site near Chiliomodi span the period from the early Hellenistic years, after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., into the Roman Empire. In 146 B.C., Romans occupied Greece, bringing Tenea under imperial control.

According to the statement from the Greek cultural ministry, the archaeological evidence suggests Tenea grew economically during the reign of Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (A.D. 193-211).

But the city seems to have suffered after the Gothic king Alaric raided the Peloponnese between A.D. 396 and 397, as relatively few artefacts were found dating to the fourth century. During the sixth century A.D., the city may have been abandoned.

Now, more than 1,400 years later, archaeologists are exploring it once again. 

“It is significant that the remnants of the city, the paved roads, the architectural structure, came to light,” Korka told Reuters. “We’ve found evidence of life and death…and all this is just a small part of the history of the place.” 

ASIA, IRAN, WORLD

Surprising archaeologists find 1,000-year-old stainless steel in Iran

Surprising archaeologists find 1,000-year-old stainless steel in Iran

Stainless steel as we know it today was created in the early 20th century, in England. But researchers found evidence of the use of an alloy of iron and chromium quite similar to stainless steel – but almost a thousand years old.

Discovery, published in Journal of Archaeological Science, was made with the help of a series of manuscripts medieval Persians, who took the researchers to an archaeological site in Chahak, in southern Iran.

“This research not only provides the first known evidence of chrome steel production dating back to the 11th century AD, but it also provides a chemical tracker that can help identify similar artefacts in museums or archaeological collections since their origin in Chahak”, believes the author study, archaeologist Rahil Alipour.

Surprising archaeologists find 1,000-year-old stainless steel in Iran
Crucible remnant containing an embedded chunk of slag.

Chahak is described in a series of historical manuscripts dating from the 12th to the 19th century as a famous steelmaking centre – but its exact location has remained a mystery, as several villages in Iran bear the same name.

The manuscript “al-Jamahir fi Marifah al-Jawahir” (“A Compendium for Knowing the Gems”, dating from the 10th to the 11th centuries AD), written by the Persian polymath Abu-Rayhan Biruni, is one of those documents, which also details recipe steelmaking – but registers a mysterious ingredient called “rusakhtaj”.

Microscopic analysis of the sample collected in Chahak.

The team of archaeologists used radiocarbon dating on a series of pieces of coal recovered from the archaeological site to confirm their production as having been made between the 11th and 12th centuries AD.

Using scanning electron microscopy, the researchers identified remains of the chromite mineral, described in Biruni’s manuscript as an essential additive to the process.

The steel particles analyzed contained between 1% and 2% of chromium – therefore, they were not stainless like the modern alloys, which contain between 11% and 13% of the material.

“In a 13th-century Persian manuscript, Chahak steel was known for its fine and refined patterns, but its swords were also fragile – so they lost their market value,” explains Thilo Rehren, co-author of the study.

The researchers believe that this marks a distinct tradition of steelmaking separate from the traditional methods used in Central Asia.

“The previous evidence belongs to steelmaking centres in India, Sri Lanka, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan,” said Alipour. “None of these, however, has any trace of chrome.

This is very important, as we can now search for this element in objects and track them back to their production centre or method ”, he adds.

ECUADOR, SOUTH AMERICA, WORLD

Infants from 2100 years ago found with helmets made of children’s skulls

Infants from 2100 years ago found with helmets made of children’s skulls

According to the new study, two babies from ancient South American burial mounds have been discovered wearing helmets made from the skulls of other infants.

Skulls and other objects excavated at burial sites on the coast of Ecuador.

As researchers tell in their report published earlier this month in the science journal, Latin American Antiquity, this is the first recorded evidence of ancient people using children’s skulls as burial headgear anywhere in the world.

Excavations on Ecuador’s coast from 2014 to 2016 discovered the bodies of 11 people in ancient burial mounds, including two adults, one young person, and four infants. Around the burials, small artefacts and shells were discovered.

But it was two of the infants wearing skull “helmets” found in two burial mounds dated to approximately 100 BC that really grabbed attention.

The research — led by University of North Carolina at Charlotte assistant professor Sara Juengst — found that one baby was 18 months old at the time of death, and was wearing parts of the skull of another child aged between four and 12 years old.

The skull was placed in a “helmet-like fashion around the head of the first, such that the primary individual’s face looked through,” the researchers said. A small shell and a child’s finger bone was found between the skull “helmet” and the infant’s head.

Items found during excavations of ancient burial sites on the coast of Ecuador.

The other infant was aged between six and nine months old and was wearing skull fragments of a child aged between two and 12 years old.

Researchers said the skull “helmets” likely still had flesh on them when they were put on the infants’ heads, as children’s skulls often don’t hold together.

The story behind the skull ‘helmets’

In the study, researchers acknowledged that there were a number of questions remaining. They did not know whose skulls had been turned into “helmets” — or why two babies were wearing “helmets” while others were not.

But the researchers noted that detached heads were “symbolically important” in South America, and dead children were often given special treatment in death.

“The human head was a potent symbol for many South American cultures,” the study found.

The researchers speculated that the skull “helmets” could have been an attempt to protect the babies’ souls — a theory that they said was given weight by the figurines found around the burial site.

The area had been hit by volcanic ashfall before the burial, the study said.

“A tantalizing hypothesis is that this bodily stress is related to the volcanic ash fall that preceded these burials, and that the treatment of the two infants was part of a larger, complex ritual response to environmental consequences of the eruption,” the researchers said. “More evidence is needed to confirm this.”

The researchers also noted that there was no evidence of the tomb being reopened or manipulated after the initial burial.

Previous studies have uncovered details of burial rites of ancient civilizations of South America.

Earlier this year, archaeologists in Peru found the remains of around 250 children sacrificed by the pre-Colombian Chimu civilization.

WORLD

Native Americans may have reached Polynesia long before Europeans

Native Americans may have reached Polynesia long before Europeans

According to an eye-opening study published by Stanford Medicine scholars, early Polynesian sailors possibly arrived in South America decades before Christopher Columbus set foot in the New World.

Stanford postdoctoral scholar Alexander Ioannidis and his colleagues give the first definitive proof in a report published in the journal Nature that Polynesians and Native Americans encountered about 300 years before Europeans arrived on the continent.

The authors uncovered the prior interaction between Polynesians and Native Americans from the area which includes what is now Colombia, by using deep genetic analyses, a hypothesis that has been fiercely discussed by historians and archaeologists for decades.

Genetic clues reveal early migration from South America to Polynesia.

According to the authors’ statistical analyses, this meeting took place around 1200 A.D., during the so-called Dark Ages in Europe — and long before Columbus set sail from the Spanish port of Palos. This likely occurred during the Polynesian peoples’ voyages of discovery in the remote eastern Pacific around the same time, during which they located the remaining Pacific island groups, from Hawaii to New Zealand and Rapa Nui.

Proponents of this view speculate that common cultural elements, such as similarities in certain words used by both groups, suggest the two cultures met prior to the arrival of Europeans in the late 15th century.

Opponents like to point out that the two groups were separated by thousands of miles of ocean which neither group was likely to traverse.

Previous studies focused on ancient DNA samples taken from bones, however, these samples tend to be heavily degraded and unsuitable for drawing valid conclusions.

“The team’s goal was to reconstruct the ancestral roots that have shaped the diversity of these populations and answer deep, long-standing questions about the potential contact between Native Americans and Pacific Islanders, connecting two of the most understudied regions of the world,” according to senior author Andrés Moreno-Estrada, professor and head of genomic services at the National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity in Mexico.

Tahitian warrior dugouts from ‘Le Costume Ancien et Moderne’ by Giulio Ferrario, Milan, between 1816 and 1827.

The researchers analyzed genome-wide variation in individuals from across Polynesia for signs of Native American DNA sequences.

Using genetic data collected from the saliva of 807 living indigenous inhabitants of Colombia and residents of 17 French Polynesian islands, the authors searched for signals suggesting a common ancestry. They traced genetic signatures found in trackable, heritable segments of the subjects’ DNA dating back hundreds of years to the Polynesian settlement of Oceania.

Computational methods developed during Ioannidis’ graduate work allowed researchers to localize the Native American DNA to modern-day Colombia.

They now believe that the Polynesians probably landed there. While pre-Columbian indigenous tribes crafted all manner of drift rafts and were known to trade with other groups along the coast, it’s less likely that Native American vessels would have sailed to Polynesia based on what we know of their coastal travel patterns.

“We found identical-by-descent segments of Native American ancestry across several Polynesian islands,” said Ioannidis. “It was conclusive evidence that there was a single shared contact event.” This means that members of the two cultures not only met, but they also produced children combining identifiable genetic traits unique to both groups.

And then there’s the mystery of the sweet potato.

Ioannidis notes the sweet potato is native to the Americas but is known to have been grown in only one other place prior to European contact: Oceania, which includes many Pacific islands including Polynesia.

The Polynesian word for sweet potato, “kumala,” is similar to the word used by certain indigenous groups in the Andes, “cumal,” leading some archaeologists and historians to believe that the two groups did in fact meet.

Other New World crops, like the bottle gourd, are also found in the Polynesian archaeological record but appear nowhere else outside the pre-Columbian Americas.

Previous genetic research focused on a possible link between Native Americans and the inhabitants of Rapa Nui, the closest inhabited Polynesian island to the Americas, which revealed a Native American component in the genes of those with Rapanui ancestry. However, in a genome-wide study of eight modern individuals and five skeletal remains, all of the former and none of the latter had such a component — leading to opposing conclusions about their pre-European contacts.

Moai statues at the Rano Raraku site on Easter Island
Left: Polynesians on Nuku Hiva, an island in the North Marquesas, carry traces of Native American ancestry; Right: Artist’s impression of a Polynesian individual with genetic roots tracing back to diverse regions across the Pacific and the Americas, denoting the mixed origin of the population.

“Genomics is at a stage where it can really make useful contributions to answering some of these open questions,” said Ioannidis. “I think it’s really exciting that we, as data scientists and geneticists, are able to contribute in a meaningful way to our understanding of human history.”

MEXICO, NORTH AMERICA, WORLD

Aztec skull tower: Archaeologists unearth new sections in Mexico City

Aztec skull tower: Archaeologists unearth new sections in Mexico City

More sections of an extraordinary Aztec tower of human skulls have been excavated by archaeologists in the centre of Mexico City. The National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) of Mexico said a further 119 skulls had been uncovered.

Aztec skull tower: Archaeologists unearth new sections in Mexico City
A photo shows parts of an Aztec tower of human skulls, believed to form part of the Huey Tzompantli, a massive array of skulls that struck fear into the Spanish conquistadores.

While restoring a building in the Mexican capital, the tower was discovered in 2015. It is thought to be part of the temple’s skull rack for the Aztec god of the sun, war, and human sacrifice.

Known as the Huey Tzompantli, the skull rack stood on the corner of the chapel of Huitzilopochtli, the patron of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan.

The Aztecs were a group of Nahuatl-speaking peoples that dominated large parts of central Mexico from the 14th to the 16th centuries.

Their empire was overthrown by invaders led by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, who captured Tenochtitlan in 1521.

A photo shows parts of an Aztec tower of human skulls, believed to form part of the Huey Tzompantli, at the Templo Mayor archaeology site, in Mexico City.

A similar structure to the Huey Tzompantli struck fear in the soldiers accompanying the Spanish conqueror when they invaded the city.

The cylindrical structure is near the huge Metropolitan Cathedral built over the Templo Mayor, one of the main temples of Tenochtitlan, now modern-day Mexico City.

“The Templo Mayor continues to surprise us, and the Huey Tzompantli is without doubt one of the most impressive archaeological finds of recent years in our country,” Mexican Culture Minister Alejandra Frausto said.

Archaeologists have identified three construction phases of the tower, which dates back to between 1486 and 1502.

The tower’s original discovery surprised anthropologists, who had been expecting to find the skulls of young male warriors but also unearthed the crania of women and children, raising questions about human sacrifice in the Aztec Empire.

“Although we can’t say how many of these individuals were warriors, perhaps some were captives destined for sacrificial ceremonies,” said archaeologist Raul Barrera.

“We do know that they were all made sacred,” he added. “Turned into gifts for the gods or even personifications of deities themselves.”

NORTH AMERICA, U.S.A, WORLD

Dino-mite: N.C. museum gets fossils of dinosaurs that apparently died fighting

Dino-mite: N.C. museum gets fossils of dinosaurs that apparently died fighting

Apparently locked in battle on the plains of modern-day Montana, about 66 million years after two dinosaurs died, an unusual fight over who owns the entangled fossils has become a multimillion-dollar issue that depends on the legal definition of “mineral.”

The 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled last week that the “Dueling Dinosaurs” located on private land are minerals both scientifically and under mineral rights laws.

The fossils belong both to the owners of the property where they were found and two brothers who kept two-thirds of the mineral rights to the land once owned by their father, a three-judge panel said in a split decision.

Eric Edward Nord, an attorney for the property owners, said the case is complex in dealing with who owns what’s on top of land vs. the minerals that make it up and addresses a unique question of mineral rights law related to dinosaur fossils that no court in the country has taken up before.

His clients own part of a ranch in the Hell Creek Formation of eastern Montana that’s rich with prehistoric fossils, including the Dueling Dinosaurs whose value had been appraised at $7 million to $9 million.

Lige and Mary Ann Murray bought it from George Severson, who also transferred part of his interest in the ranch to his sons, Jerry and Robert Severson. In 2005, the brothers sold their surface rights to the Murrays, but retained the mineral rights, court documents said.

At the time, neither side suspected valuable dinosaur fossils were buried on the ranch, court records said. A few months later, amateur palaeontologist Clayton Phipps discovered the carnivore and herbivore apparently locked in battle. Imprints of the dinosaurs’ skin were also in the sediment.

A dispute arose in 2008 when the Seversons learned about the fossils — a 22-foot-long (7-meter-long) theropod and a 28-foot-long (9-meter-long) ceratopsian.

The Murrays sought a court order saying they owned the Dueling Dinosaurs, while the Seversons asked a judge to find that fossils are part of the property’s mineral estate and that they were entitled to partial ownership.

One of two “duelling dinosaur” fossils is displayed in New York. Ownership of two fossilized dinosaur skeletons found on a Montana ranch in 2006 is the subject of a legal battle over whether they are part of a property’s surface rights or mineral rights. The 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals issued a split decision saying fossils are minerals under mineral rights laws.

It had wider implications because the ranch is in an area that has numerous prehistoric creatures preserved in layers of clay and sandstone. Palaeontologists have unearthed thousands of specimens now housed in museums and used for research.

But fossils discovered on private land can be privately owned, frustrating palaeontologists who say valuable scientific information is being lost.

During the court case, the Dueling Dinosaurs were put up for auction in New York in November 2013. Bidding topped out at $5.5 million, less than the reserve price of $6 million.

A nearly complete Tyrannosaurus rex found on the property was sold to a Dutch museum for several million dollars in 2014, with the proceeds being held in escrow pending the outcome of the court case.

Other fossils found on the ranch also have been sold, including a triceratops skull that brought in more than $200,000, court records said.

The 9th Circuit decision on Nov. 6 overturned a federal judge’s 2016 opinion that fossils were not included in the ordinary definition of “mineral” because not all fossils with the same mineral composition are considered valuable.

“The composition of minerals found in the fossils does not make them valuable or worthless,” U.S. District Judge Susan Watters of Billings wrote. “Instead, the value turns on characteristics other than mineral composition, such as the completeness of the specimen, the species of dinosaur and how well it is preserved.”

The Severson’s had appealed, arguing previous court cases determined that naturally occurring materials that have some special value meet the definition of minerals.

Attorneys for the Murrays asked the 9th Circuit this week for an extension of a Nov. 21 deadline to petition the judges to reconsider or for a hearing before an 11-judge panel.

All In One Magazine