Brutalised skeletons of ancient farmers who ‘battered each other to death in world’s DRIEST desert’ found
Grisly human remains of ancient farmers who worked in one of the world’s driest deserts have been examined as part of a new study. The battered skeletons were found in the Atacama Desert in modern-day Chile and date back 3,000 years.
Lethal wounds could be seen on some of the skulls
The brutal conditions of their dry workplace weren’t the only thing they had to deal with though.
The skeletons show how the farmers lived in a time of social tension that led to violence and murder.
The researchers write in their study: “The emergence of elites and social inequality fostered interpersonal and inter- and intra-group violence associated with the defence of resources, socio-economic investments, and other cultural concerns.
“This study evaluated violence among the first horticulturalists in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile during the Neolithic transition between 1000 BCE – 600 CE. Furthermore, it analyzed trauma caused by interpersonal violence using a sample of 194 individuals.”
The 194 skeletons investigated were all adult and came from ancient cemeteries in the desert’s Azapa Valley.
This was said to be one of the richest and most fertile valleys that the ancient farmers could have been based in.
The skeletons are creepily well preserved because of the dry conditions and some even have soft tissue and hair.
Around 21% of the skeletons also showed evidence of “interpersonal violence”.
This includes skull holes and fractures that would have caused extreme pain.
Around 10% likely died from lethal blows.
Weapons like maces, sticks and arrows could have caused the trauma.
The researchers write: “Some individuals exhibited severe high impact fractures of the cranium that caused massive destruction of the face and neurocranium, with craniofacial disjunction and outflow of brain mass.”
The fights could have been over land, water and resources.
New evidence supports idea that America’s first civilization was made up of ‘sophisticated’ engineers
The illustration above shows the core features of the Poverty Point site in northern Louisiana. The green to the right is the Mississippi River flood plain. The orange is Macon Ridge, the higher ground on which the site is located. Six C-shaped ridges are visible at the site. Parts of the ridges have been damaged by historic and modern activities. The pattern south of Mound E is the result of farm activity. Many of the low areas around the site – lighter yellow – are thought to be places where the soil was mined to make ridges and mounds.1 of 3The illustration above shows the core features of the Poverty Point site in northern Louisiana. The green to the right is the Mississippi River flood plain. The orange is Macon Ridge, the higher ground on which the site is located. Six C-shaped ridges are visible at the site. Parts of the ridges have been damaged by historic and modern activities. The pattern south of Mound E is the result of farm activity. Many of the low areas around the site – lighter yellow – are thought to be places where the soil was mined to make ridges and mounds.
The Native Americans who occupied the area known as Poverty Point in northern Louisiana more than 3,000 years ago long have been believed to be simple hunters and gatherers. But new Washington University in St. Louis archaeological findings paint a drastically different picture of America’s first civilization.
Far from the simplicity of life sometimes portrayed in anthropology books, these early Indigenous people were highly skilled engineers capable of building massive earthen structures in a matter of months — possibly even weeks — that withstood the test of times, the findings show.
“We as a research community — and population as a whole — have undervalued native people and their ability to do this work and to do it quickly in the ways they did,” said Tristram R. “T.R.” Kidder, lead author and the Edward S. and Tedi Macias Professor of Anthropology in Arts & Sciences.
“One of the most remarkable things is that these earthworks have held together for more than 3,000 years with no failure or major erosion.
By comparison, modern bridges, highways and dams fail with amazing regularity because building things out of the dirt is more complicated than you would think. They really were incredible engineers with very sophisticated technical knowledge.”
The findings were published in Southeastern Archaeology on September 1, 2021. Washington University’s Kai Su, Seth B. Grooms, along with graduates Edward R. Henry (Colorado State) and Kelly Ervin (USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service) also contributed to the paper.
The Poverty Point World Heritage site consists of a massive 72-foot-tall earthen mound and concentric half-circle ridges. The structures were constructed by hunter-gatherers approximately 3,400 years ago from nearly 2 million cubic yards of soil.
Amazingly, this was done without the luxury of modern tools, domesticated animals or even wheeled carts.
An excavation before sampling. Note the colour changes between layers. The darker layers have carbon-rich deposits made by humans, such as midden or garbage that was scraped up and dumped to form the ridge structure during construction. There is little organic garbage in the upper third section.
According to Kidder, the site was likely an important religious site where Native Americans came in pilgrimage, similar to Mecca. It was abandoned abruptly between 3,000-3,200 years ago — most likely due to documented flooding in the Mississippi Valley and climate change.
The ridges at Poverty Point contain vast amounts of artefacts around the edges and within, suggesting that people lived there. Kidder and the team re-excavated and re-evaluated a site on Ridge West 3 at the Poverty Point Site that was originally excavated by renowned archaeologist Jon Gibson in 1991.
Using modern research methods including radiocarbon dating, microscopic analysis of soils and magnetic measurements of soils, the research provides conclusive evidence that the earthworks were built rapidly. Essentially, there is no evidence of boundaries or signs of weathering between the various levels, which would have occurred if there was even a brief pause in construction. Kidder believes the construction was completed in lifts, or layers of sediment deposited to increase the ridge height and linear dimensions before another layer were placed to expand the footprint vertically and horizontally.
Why does that matter? According to Kidder, the findings challenge previous beliefs about how pre-modern hunters and gatherers behaved. Building the enormous mounds and ridges at Poverty Point would have required a large labour pool that was well organized and would have required leadership to execute. Hunters and gathers were believed to shun politics.
“Between the speed of the excavation and construction, and the quantity of earth being moved, these data show us native people coming to the site and working in concert. This in and of itself is remarkable because hunter-gatherers aren’t supposed to be able to do these activities,” Kidder said.
What’s even more impressive than how quickly the people built the earthen structures is the fact that they’re still intact. Due to its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, this area receives immense amounts of rain that makes earthworks especially prone to erosion. Microscopic analysis of soils shows that the Native Americans mixed different types of soil — clays, silts and sand — in a calculated recipe to make the structures stronger.
“Similar to the Roman concrete or rammed earth in China, Native Americans discovered sophisticated ways of mixing different types of materials to make them virtually indestructible, despite not being compacted. There’s some magic there that our modern engineers have not been able to figure out yet,” Kidder said.
Investigations have discovered the existence of a 900m high “Great Pyramid” hidden under intense vegetation in Australia
There are pyramid constructions all over the world. Despite the ancient study of culture we, in each of them there are these buildings. That’s why it’s not surprising that there’s even a Great Pyramid in Australia.
A team of amateur archaeologists, assures Australia that before the arrival of Europeans, ancient Egyptians were in the ocean and the built pyramids.
Is this the Great Pyramid in Australia?
The research team found signs of what could be a Great Pyramid dating 5,000 years built by the Egyptians in Australia.
It is placed on a mountain, in North Queensland and according to the hieroglyphics found in Gosford, there is a total of two pyramids: one in the pipe, which was destroyed and the other location remains unknown.
Called” The Pyramid of Walsh ” is about 30 minutes west of the Australian people’s coastal town. Altitude is exactly 922 meters and is believed to have been the last resort of Nefer-ti-ru.
The evidence on which they are based is mentioned in the hieroglyphics Gosford. These strange sizes are considered Egyptian by many experts. They’re near Sydney.
These hieroglyphics are believed to have been made by the Egyptian sailors 5,000 years ago when they discovered the continent.
Hieroglyphics reveal the truth about the pyramid.
Fake hieroglyphics or the hidden truth?
These hieroglyphs have been full of controversy since their discovery. Some archaeologists claim they are modern forgeries.
They say it’s impossible that the sailors from old Egypt arrived in Australia.
Ray Johnson, an amateur archaeologist, translated hieroglyphics for the Museum of Antiquities in Cairo and was able to document and translate two walls facing Egyptian symbols.
The story behind this text shows how ancient Egyptian researchers were shipwrecked in a place “strange and hostile”. Current
Or way, you’re sure these texts mention Australia’s Great Pyramid and how it was King Nefer-ti-ru’s Tomb.
Although signs can be found that this true pyramid exists, experts have not wanted to investigate the country, saying it is nothing more than a “natural granite peak.”However, this will not be the first time a pyramid facility has been unearthed underground for skilled and vegetation.
Neanderthal Tooth from Iran Dated to Middle Paleolithic Period
A new study conducted by a team of archaeologists and paleoanthropologists from Germany, Italy, Iran, and Britain delves into the discovery of an in-situ Neanderthal tooth, which was discovered in 2017 in a rock shelter, western Iran.
The research is described in a paper in the online journal PLOS ONE that was published last Thursday.
The tooth, which is a deciduous canine that belongs to a 6 years old child, was found at a depth of 2.5 m of the Baba Yawan shelter in association with animal bones and stone tools near Kermanshah.
The analysis that was performed by Stefano Benazzi, a physical anthropologist at the University of Bologna, Italy shows that the tooth has Neanderthal affinities. Stone tools discovered close to the teeth belong to the Middle Paleolithic period and a series of c14 dating suggests the tooth is between 41,000-43,000 years in an age which is close to the end of the Middle Paleolithic period when Neanderthal disappeared in the Zagros.
Fereidoun Biglari, a Paleolithic archaeologist at Iran National Museum, says “this recent discovery, along with other Neanderthal remains previously found in other parts of Zagros, including Shanidar Cave, Bisotun Cave, and Wezmeh Cave, indicate that Neanderthals were present in a wide geographical range of Zagros from northwest to west of this mountain range since at least 80,000 until about 40,000-45,000 years ago when they disappeared and Homo Sapiens populations spread into the region”.
He added that “Association of Yawan Neanderthal tooth with Middle Palaeolithic stone tools known as Zagros Mousterian is a further confirmation of association of this stone tool industry with Neanderthals.
Such associations have been observed in Wezmeh where a Neanderthal premolar tooth and Zagros Mousterian tools were found in the same cave, and also in the Bisotun cave that was excavated in 1949 by C. Coon.
Bisotun produced a human partial radius that most likely belongs to a Neanderthal along with Zagros Mousterian lithics in Middle Paleolithic layers of the site”.
Huw Groucutt, a Paleolithic archaeologist at Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, commented on the datings provided for the Yawan tooth in his Twitter post “Dating sites like this, with small fragments of charcoal which are highly susceptible to movement and contamination, using the only radiocarbon is challenging”. He added “Nearly half of the radiocarbon dates from the site failed. I am rather dubious about the available dates for ‘Zagros Mousterian’ sites based only on C14. But he added “this is a great work, thousands of lithics found and a nice Neanderthal tooth. It is crucial though to use other dating techniques where possible.
The frequent ca. 45 ka ages in many parts of the world may reflect samples beyond the range of C14 with a bit of contamination.”
According to the researchers, Neanderthal extinction has been a matter of debate for many years.
New discoveries, better chronologies, and genomic evidence have done much to clarify some of the issues. This evidence suggests that Neanderthals became extinct around 40,000–37,000 years before the present (BP), after a period of coexistence with Homo sapiens of several millennia, involving biological and cultural interactions between the two groups.
However, the bulk of this evidence relates to Western Eurasia, and recent work in Central Asia and Siberia has shown that there is considerable local variation. Southwestern Asia, despite having a number of significant Neanderthal remains, has not played a major part in the debate over extinction.
Yawan is the second Neanderthal tooth that has been discovered in Iran. The first Neanderthal tooth was discovered in the Wezmeh cave near Kermanshah in 2001.
This cave is well-known for the discovery of a large number of animal fossils. A recent re-excavation of the cave by Fereidoun Biglari revealed stone tools made by Neanderthals, which shows that the cave was not just a den used by carnivores such as hyenas, lions, wolves, and leopards.
Moreover, the discovery of the third tooth of a 5-7 years old Neanderthal child was announced by a joint Iranian-French team that was discovered in Qal-e Kord near Qazvin in 2019.
These discoveries show that Iran has a rich paleoanthropological record and the country can produce important data in the future.
Traces of Beer Detected in 9,000-Year-Old Vessels in China
Alcoholic beverages have long been known to serve an important socio-cultural function in ancient societies, including ritual feasts. A new study finds evidence of beer drinking 9,000 years ago in southern China, which was likely part of a ritual to honour the dead.
The findings are based on an analysis of ancient pots found at a burial site at Qiaotou, making the site among the oldest in the world for early beer drinking. The results are reported in PLOS ONE.
The ancient pots were discovered in a platform mound (80 m x 50 m wide, with an elevation of 3 m above ground level), which was surrounded by a human-made ditch (10-15 m wide and 1.5-2 m deep), based on ongoing excavations at Qiaotou. No residential structures were found at the site.
Painted pottery vessels for serving drinks and food.
The mound contained two human skeletons and multiple pottery pits with high-quality pottery vessels, many of which were complete vessels. The pottery was painted with white slip and some of the vessels were decorated with abstract designs. As the study reports, these artefacts are probably some of “the earliest known painted pottery in the world.” No pottery of this kind has been found at any other sites dating to this time period.
The research team analyzed different types of pottery found at Qiaotou, which were of varying sizes. Some of the pottery vessels were relatively small and similar in size to drinking vessels used today, and to those found in other parts of the world.
Each of the pots could basically be held in one hand like a cup unlike storage vessels, which are much larger in size. Seven of the 20 vessels, which were part of their analysis, appeared to be long-necked Hu pots, which were used to drink alcohol in the later historical periods.
To confirm that the vessels were used for drinking alcohol, the research team analyzed microfossil residues— starch, phytolith (fossilized plant residue), and fungi, extracted from the interior surfaces of the pots. The residues were compared with control samples obtained from the soil surrounding the vessels.
The team identified micro botanical (starch granules and phytoliths) and microbial (mould and yeast) residues in the pots that were consistent with residues from beer fermentation and are not found naturally in soil or in other artefacts unless they had contained alcohol.
“Through a residue analysis of pots from Qiaotou, our results revealed that the pottery vessels were used to hold beer, in its most general sense— a fermented beverage made of rice (Oryza sp.), a grain called Job’s tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), and unidentified tubers,” says co-author Jiajing Wang, an assistant professor of anthropology at Dartmouth.
“This ancient beer though would not have been like the IPA that we have today. Instead, it was likely a slightly fermented and sweet beverage, which was probably cloudy in colour.”
The results also showed that phytoliths of rice husks and other plants were also present in the residue from the pots. They may have been added to the beer as a fermentation agent.
Although the Yangtze River Valley of southern China is known today as the country’s rice heartland, the domestication of rice occurred gradually between 10,000 and 6,000 years ago, so 9,000 years ago, rice was still in the early stage of domestication.
At that time, most communities were hunter-gatherers who relied primarily on foraging. As the researchers explain in the study, given that rice harvesting and processing was labour-intensive, the beer at Qiaotou was probably a ritually significant drink/beverage.
The residue analysis of the pots also showed traces of mould, which was used in the beermaking process. The mould found in the pots at Qiaotou was very similar to the mould present in koji, which is used to make sake and other fermented rice beverages in East Asia. The results predate earlier research, which found that mould had been used in fermentation processes 8,000 years ago in China.
Beer is technically any fermented beverage made from crops through a two-stage transformation process. In the first phase, enzymes transform starch into sugar (saccharification). In the second phase, the yeasts convert the sugar into alcohol and other states like carbon dioxide (fermentation).
As the researchers explain in the study, mould acts kind of like an agent for both processes, by serving as a saccharification-fermentation starter.
“We don’t know how people made the mould 9,000 years ago, as fermentation can happen naturally,” says Wang. “If people had some leftover rice and the grains became mouldy, they may have noticed that the grains became sweeter and alcoholic with age. While people may not have known the biochemistry associated with grains that became mouldy, they probably observed the fermentation process and leveraged it through trial and error.”
Given that the pottery at Qiaotou was found near the burials in a non-residential area, the researchers conclude that the pots of beer were likely used in ritualistic ceremonies relating to the burial of the dead.
They speculate that ritualized drinking may have been integral to forging social relationships and cooperation, which served as a precursor to complex rice farming societies that emerged 4,000 years later.
Scientists Reconstruct First-evolved Plant Roots Using 400-million-year-old Fossil
A plant fossil from a geological formation in Scotland sheds light on the development of the earliest known form of roots. A team led by researchers at GMI – the Gregor Mendel Institute of Molecular Plant Biology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the University of Edinburgh, and the University of Oxford realize the first 3D reconstruction of a Devonian plant-based exclusively on fossil evidence.
Artist’s reconstruction of what Asteroxylon mackiei would have looked like in life. Each leafy shoot is roughly 1 cm in diameter.
The findings demonstrate that the appearance of different axis types at branching points resulted in the evolution complexity soon after land plants evolved sometime before 400 million years ago. The results are published in eLife.
New research demonstrates how the oldest known root axed developed more than 400 million years ago. The evolution of roots at this time was a dramatic event that impacted our planet and atmosphere and resulted in transformative ecological and climate change.
3D reconstruction of Asteroxylon mackiei made from digitally re-assembling thin slices of rock. The reconstruction shows the highly branched leafy shoot in green and the rooting system in blue and purple. 3D scale bar 1 x 0.1 x 0.1 cm
The first evidence-based 3D reconstruction of the fossil Asteroxylon mackiei, the most structurally complex plant from the Rhynie chert has shown how roots and other types of axes developed in this ancient plant. The fossil is preserved in chert (a type of flint) found near the village of Rhynie in Aberdeenshire, Scotland.
The specimens are exceptionally well-preserved in the 407-million-year-old rocks from the Early Devonian period.
The extinct genus Asteroxylon belongs to the group of plants called the lycophytes, a class that also comprises living representatives such as isoetes and selaginella.
The reconstruction has allowed researchers, for the first time, to glean both anatomical and developmental information of this mysterious fossil. This is of particular significance because previous interpretations of the structure of this fossil plant were based to a large extent on comparisons of fragmentary images with extant plants.
A thin slice of the 407 million-year-old Rhynie chert mounted on a glass slide showing the amazing preservation of fossil plants preserved within. Specimen number 4178 in the paleobotanical collection at the University of Münster, Germany. Each interval on the scale bar is 1 mm.
The reconstruction demonstrates that these plants developed roots in an entirely different way than extant plants develop roots today. The rooting axes of A. mackiei are the earliest known types of plant roots.
“These are the oldest known structures that resemble modern roots and now we know how they formed. They developed when a shoot-like axis formed a fork where one prong maintained its shoot identity and the second developed root identity,” says Dolan.
This mechanism of branching, called “dichotomous branching,” is known in living plants within tissues that share structural identity. However, as Dolan stresses: “No roots develop in this way in living plants, demonstrating that this mechanism of root formation is now extinct.” Their findings demonstrate how a now extinct rooting system developed during the evolution of the first complex land plant.
View over the village of Rhynie in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. The fossil deposit known as the Rhynie chert is named after the village of Rhynie where it was first discovered just over a century ago
“100 Years after the discovery of the fossils in Rhynie, our reconstruction demonstrates what these enigmatic plants really looked like! The reconstruction also demonstrates how the roots formed” exclaims GMI group leader Liam Dolan, co-corresponding author on the work.
Understanding the structure and evolution of these plants from the Early Devonian period provides us with an insight into events at a key time in Earth history just after plants colonized the dry surfaces of the continents as they began to spread – radiate – across the land.
“Their evolution, radiation, and spread across all continents had a dramatic impact on the Earth system. Plant roots reduced atmospheric CO2 levels, stabilized the soil and revolutionized water circulation across the surfaces of continents,” states first author and co-corresponding author Alexander (Sandy) J. Hetherington, group leader at the University of Edinburgh. At the root of the environmental and ecological impact of the plant, evolution are the plant roots themselves!
Hetherington highlighted how his research was enabled by fossils that were collected by generations of palaeontologists that are housed in many different museums and universities.
“The answers to so many of the key questions of evolution are lying in shelves in these institutions,” said the scientist who is now based at the University of Edinburgh. “Using digital 3D techniques it is possible for the first time to visualize the complex body plan of A. mackiei allowing us to discover how these enigmatic plants developed. It was brilliant to finally see details that had previously been hidden.”
Israeli-Lithuanian Team Reveals Torah Ark at the Site of Vilnius’ Great Synagogue
Imaging of the podium at the Great Synagogue of Vilnius,
In Vilnius, capital of Lithuania, an excavation of its former Great Synagogue has fully exposed the Torah ark and the podium that was destroyed by Nazi-Germany during the Holocaust.
A joint Israeli-Lithuanian excavation expedition, using a ground-penetrating radar test at the site, announced on Thursday that it had made significant discoveries at the site Thursday at the end of this season of a six-year excavation project.
The silver Yad found this morning at the Great Synagogue of Vilna
“Just this morning, while sifting the soil in front of the Aron Kodesh (Torah ark), we found a silver Yad (hand). The Yad is a pointer used to read from the Torah scroll”, the archaeologists from Israel Antiquities Authority and the Lithuanian Cultural Heritage Preservation Institute said. The finding will be exhibited at the local Jewish museum.
Vilnius was in the past known as the “Jerusalem of Lithuania”. The Great Synagogue of Vilnius, built in the 17th century in Renaissance-Baroque style, was the major part of a large Jewish centre of religious and community studies.
The heart of the Lithuanian Jewish community, included synagogues and prayer halls, schools, ritual baths, and the community council.
Around 450 seats in the synagogue can be counted, though the number might have doubled during the high holidays.
Due to the prohibition to build synagogues higher than churches, a foundation was dug well below street level to create the interior height. Outside, the synagogue looked to be about three stories high, but inside it reached over four stories.
The synagogue is linked to Rabbi Eliyahu ben Shlomo Zalman in the 18th century, known as the Vilna Gaon (the genius of Vilna/Vilnius), a famous Talmudist and author of scientific studies.
The excavation of the Great Synagogue of Vilna in Lithuania showing the area of the Torah ark and two flights of stairs destroyed by the Nazis and the Soviets, August 2021.
Centuries of existence came to an end with the destruction of the Jewish community of Vilnius during the Holocaust.
The synagogue, which was sacred to the Jews of Lithuania, was looted and burned by the Nazis, and in 1956-7 its remains were completely destroyed by the Soviet authorities. A modern school was built on the premises.
“When we arrived to carry out the excavations of the interior of the synagogue, it became clear, unfortunately, that the core of the synagogue had been greatly damaged,” said Dr Jon Seligman from the Israel Antiquities Authority. “Still, two impressive staircases, clearly visible in the many images of the synagogue before its destruction, were discovered and are evidence of their existence.”
What distinguishes the synagogue from other synagogues from the period? “The synagogue is a typical baroque nine-bay synagogue,” Dr Seligman replied.
“Similar structures with a central podium (bimah) inside four supporting columns and nine vaulted bays existed at other places in Eastern Europe, such as Grodno, Lancut, Kalvarija, Druja, and Slonim.”
Are there plans for a memorial at the site or restoration of the building? “That is a question for Vilnius municipality, the Lithuanian Jewish community and Lithuanian society to decide.”
The remains of up to 20,000 people have been found in Ukraine’s southern city of Odessa as excavations continue at a site believed to be a mass grave of victims of Stalin’s Terror, historians said Monday.
People work on the site of mass graves site unearthed near Odessa airport in Ukraine
According to various estimates, the bones of between 5,000 and 20,000 people lie in the ground, making it one of the largest mass graves unearthed in Ukraine so far.
They were discovered this month close to Odessa airport after exploratory works started as part of expansion plans.
“As of today, 29 graves have been discovered. The bodies lie in several layers,” local historian Oleksandr Babych told journalists at the site which until recently was a garbage dump.
The bones of between 5,000 and 20,000 people lie in the ground, making it one of the largest mass graves unearthed in Ukraine
“Already we can clearly see at least five layers”, he said.
Historians believe that these people were executed in the 1930s, the time is known as Stalin’s Great Terror.
Archaeologist Tetyana Samoylova, a chief consultant at the site, highlighted the “cynicism” with which the sentences were carried out.
“They dug out pits in the garbage and threw these people in or shot them dead as they were standing there,” Samoylova said.
“And then they covered them with the same garbage,” she added, standing next to the dozens of graves marked by red tape.
It took 400 trucks to remove the top layer of garbage, according to a search group.
“When we carry out the exhumation, we will decide what to do here. And, of course, we plan to make a memorial,” Odessa mayor Gennady Trukhanov said.
Historians believe the people were executed in the 1930s, the time known as Stalin’s Great Terror
Some mass graves had already been unearthed in this area in previous years.
The prisoners’ nationalities and the crimes for which they were sentenced to die to remain unknown.
According to estimates made by historians, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians were imprisoned or executed in Gulag camps during the Stalinist repressions.
One of the best-known execution sites is the forest near the village of Bykivnia on the outskirts of the capital Kiev, where tens of thousands of victims were buried in 1937-1941.
Millions of Ukrainians also died in the great famine of 1932-1933, which Kiev regards as a genocide orchestrated by Stalin.
